CIVIL  ENGINEERING  TYPES 
AND  DEVICES 


CIVIL  ENGINEEBING  TYPES 


AND 


DEVICES 


A    CLASSIFIED   AND   ILLUSTRATED    INDEX    OF   PLANT, 

CONSTRUCTIONS,  MACHINES,  MATERIALS,  MEANS 

AND  METHODS  ADOPTED  AND  IN  USE  IN 

CIVIL    ENGINEERING    WORKS    OF 

EVERY   CLASS. 


FOR    THE    USE    OF 

CIVIL    ENGINEERS,    DRAUGHTSMEN,    STUDENTS, 
BUILDERS    AND    CONTRACTORS. 

Mitb  1,760  Jllustrations. 


BY 

T.   W.   BARBER,   M.INST.C.E.. 

AUTHOR  OF  "THE  ENGINEER'S  SKETCH-BOOK  OF  MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS",  ETC., 

"THE  REPAIR  AND  MAINTENANCE  OF  MACHINERY,"  "THE  PORT  OF  LONDON  AND 

THE  THAMES  BARRAGE,"  ETC.,  ETC. 


NEW     YORK : 

D.     APPLETON     AND     COMPANY. 
MCMXV. 


STEPHEN   AUSTIN   &   SONS,    LTD., 
PKINTEKS,    HEKTFORD. 


PREFACE. 

THE  object  aimed  at  in  this  work  is  the  collection  and 
classification  in  one  handy  volume  of  all  the  known  devices 
and  methods  in  use  in  every  branch  of  civil  engineering  work, 
in  the  form  of  sketches,  or  brief  drawings  and  descriptions, 
sufficient  to  enable  an  engineer  to  make  a  selection  without 
overloading  the  matter  with  detail,  which  every  competent 
engineer  can  readily  design  for  himself. 

There  are  numerous  published  works  dealing  with  special 
branches  of  engineering,  or  parts  of  such,  in  full  detail,  which 
may  be  consulted  for  details ;  but  no  general  illustrated  index 
such  as  is  presented  in  the  following  pages. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  index  may  be  of  the  same  service  to 
the  active  civil  engineer  as  the  Engineers  Sketch-book  has 

proved  to  be  to  the  mechanical  engineer. 

T.  W.  BARBER. 


3O8662 


CONTENTS. 


SECTION.  PAGE. 

1  Foundations:  wet  and  dry       .         .  .         .         .  .  2 

2  Masonry  and  brickwork  .         .,        .  .         .  .  8 

3  Drainage         .         .         .         .         .  .         .        -.  .  12 

4  Motive-power          .         .         .         .  .         .         .  .  16 

5  Bridges  and  girders          .                   .  .         .         .  .  18 

6  Iron  buildings         .         .....  .        ...  .  44 

7  Wood  framing         .         .         .   '      .                  .         .  .  46 

8  Columns,  struts,  and  ties         .         .  *         .         .  .  52 

9  Anchorages     .         .                   .         .  .         '.         .  .  58 

10  Constructional  steelwork          .         .  .         .         .  62 

11  Floors  and  partitions       .         .         '.  m.  .         .   .      .  %   .  66 

12  Roof  coverings        .         .         .         .  .         .         .  .  72 

18  Roads  and  streets   .         .         .         .  ...         .  .72 

14  Rolled  iron  and  steel  bars  and  plates  ...         .  .  74 

15  Materials  of  construction  other  than  iron  and  steel   .  .  84 

16  Retaining  walls       .          .         .         .  .         .         .  ..  86 

17  Railways:  earthworks     .         .         .  .         ...  .  92 

18  ,,           permanent  way      .         .  ...         .  .  96 

19  ,,           signalling  and  telegraphs  .         .         .  .  108 

20  „            stations         •.         .         .  .         .         .  .  110 

21  ,,           tunnels  and  culverts       .  .         .         .  .  116 

22  Carriages  and  rolling  stock  for  road  and  rail     .         .  .120 

23  Tramways      .         .         .         '.         .  ...  .  128 

24-  Canals,  aqueducts  .         .         ...  .         .         .  '.  134 

25  Heating  and  ventilation .         .         .  .         .         .  .140 

26  Plate  work      .         .      '    . 144 

27  Gas  supply     .         .         .         .         ...;.'  .  150 

28  Hydraulics     .         .         .         .         .  .         .         .  ,    .  152 

29  Sea  and  river  structures .         ...  .         .         .  .  160 

30  Irrigation        .-        .         .         .         .  ;         .         .  .  174 

31  Docks,  harbours      .         .         .         .  .         .  .176 


viii  CONTENTS. 

SRCTION.  PAGK. 

32  Lighthouses,  huoys,  heacons,  moorings     .  .       182 

83  Disposal  of  refuse,  etc.    ....  .184 

34  Tanks  and  containers      ...  .       186 

35  Mines,  wells   .....  .188 

36  Fencing          .         .         .         ...  .192 

37  Staging  and  false  works            .         ;  •       196 

38  Hoisting  machinery         . .                  .  .       202 

39  Submarine  engineering   ...  .214 

40  Opening  bridges      .                   ...         .  .216 

41  Roofs     .         .         .         .         .         .         .  '       .         .         •       220 

42  Concrete  and  reinforced  concrete     .1  •       ^34 

43  Dams  and  weirs      .....  .       240 

44  Water  supply          .         .  ...         •  ••'.•         •       244 


CIVIL   ENGINEERING  TYPES 
AND   DEVICES 

FOR    THE    USE    OF 

CIVIL    ENGINEERS,    DRAUGHTSMEN,    STUDENTS, 
BUILDERS,   AND    CONTRACTORS. 


2         CIVIL  ^ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


Section  1.— FOUNDATIONS:   WET  AND   DRY. 

(See  also  Sections  16,  17,  29.) 


1     Concrete  bed  or   base   for   a   large   building   on    uncertain 
ground.     Soft  places  are  strengthened  by  piling. 


2-9  Cylinder  or  caisson  foundations  for  bridge  piers,  etc. 
The  groups  of  cylinders  are  connected  by  horizontal  frames 
and  capped  with  girder  framing  to  form  a  base  for  the  masonry 
or  steel  arches. 


10  Vertical  section  of  a  cylinder  caisson  lined  with  brick- 
work or  concrete.  The  bottom  edge  is  bevelled  to  enter  the 
ground,  and,  where  necessary,  the  cylinder  is  loaded  inside  or 
on  top  to  force  it  down  as  the  material  is  excavated. 


11     Sinking  a  pile  in  soft  ground  or  sand  by  water-jet  from 
a  pump. 


12     Elevation  of  a  cylinder  base  for  a  bridge  pier. 


FOUNDATIONS. 


4         CIVIL    ENGINEEKING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


13     Elongated  caisson  for  a  bridge  pier,    sunk   in    the   same 
way  as  No.  10. 


14     Retaining  wall  with  apron,  supported  by  sheet  piles.     (See 
also  Section  16.) 


15     Caisson  sunk  by  compressed  air   and   air-locks  in  water, 
or  strata  heavily  charged  with  water. 


16,  17      Iron    piles   sunk   by   water   pressure   in   soft   strata 
or  sand. 


18     Iron  cylinder  sunk  to  the  rock  as  a  working  pit  or  caisson 
in  which  to  fix  a  column  founded  on  the  rock. 


19     Screw  pile  foundation  for  a  wall.     Each  pair  of  piles  is 
connected  by  a  top  girder  on  which  the  wall  is  founded. 


20     Another  form  of  caisson  (as  No.  13)  lined  with  masonry. 


21  Concrete  or  sand  piles.  (See  Section  42.)  Sand  piles  are 
formed  in  holes  prepared  by  a  driven  pile  or  jumper  (see 
Nos.  1-10,  Section  41)  and  filled  with  sand. 


FOUNDATIONS. 


6  CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

22  Concrete  and  stepped  footing  for  a  wall. 

23  Ditto,  battered,  for  a  retaining  wall. 

24  Concrete  pile.     (See  Section  42.) 

25  Footing  of  wall  founded  on  piles. 

26  Wall  footing  on  longitudinal  timbers  resting  on  piles. 

27  Retaining  or  sea  wall,  with  stone  apron  to  protect   the 

footing  from  the  wash  of  the  sea. 

28  Wall  on  girders,  supported  by  screw  piles. 

29  Relieving  arch  over  a  soft  place  in  a  foundation. 

30  Invert  arch   to   spread   the   load   of  piers   between   openings 

evenly  on  the  foundation. 

31  Flange-footed  pile,  sunk  generally  by  water,  as  No.  16. 

32  Ditto,  with  flat  flange. 

33  Hollow  screw  pile,  with  serrated  cutting  edge. 

34  Hollow  flat-flange   pile,  with   radial   scrapers   to   facilitate 

sinking  as  the  pile  is  revolved. 

Holes  for  posts  or  trees  are  sometimes  made  by  blasting  with 
small  sticks  of  dynamite  or  powder  cartridges  sunk  in  holes 
jumped  in  the  ground. 


FOUNDATIONS. 


8         CIVIL    ENGINEEKING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

; 

Section  2.— MASONRY    AND    BRICKWORK. 

1  Section  of  random  rubble  stone  wall. 

2  Ditto,  in  courses. 

3  Ditto,  coursed  rubble  wall. 

4  Brick  wall  with  ashlar  face. 

5  Squared  stone  wall. 

6  Ditto,  backed  by  brickwork. 

I    7-11     Various    forms    of    hollow    or   rusticated  joints   in 

masonry  or  ashlar. 

12-16     Sections  of  brick  walls  from  half  brick  to  2|  bricks  thick. 

17  Flemish  bond  in  wall  face. 

18  English  bond  in  ditto. 

19-22     Plans  of  bonding  in  li  brick  walls. 

I 

23  Ditto  in  2  brick  wall. 

24  Elevation  of  face  of  random  rubble  wall,  No.  1. 

I  25     Ditto,  in  courses,  No.  2. 

I 

' 

26  Ditto,  coursed  rubble  wall,  No.  3. 

t 

27  Ditto,  of  ashlar  and  masonry  walls,  Nos.  4-6. 


MASONRY    AND    BRICKWORK. 


10 


L  UL  UJU 

r  r  T  r 


12  13 

j_ 


14- 


15 


I    .     I 


I     .     I 


J6 


t     .      I 


I     .     I 


I     .      I 


I     ,     I 


I     I.     .  I     I  .     .  I I  .    .1 JL I 


19 


20 


W~n 


21 


22 


23 


27 


m 


10       CIVIL    ENGINEEKING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


28  Face  of  squared  masonry  wall. 

29  Toggle  bed  joint  in  masonry  wall. 

30-2     Other  forms  of  toggle-jointed  masonry. 

33  Toggle-joints  in  arched  masonry. 

34  Relieving  arch  over  a  pair  of  windows. 

35  Slab  wall  tongued  and  grooved. 


36     Wood  partition  faced   with   concrete   or   fibrous   plaster 
slabs  secured  by  nails.     (See  Section  11.) 


37-43     Copings  for  boundary  walls. 

44-5     Corbels,  brick  or  stone  ;  angular  or  straight. 


MASONEY   AND    BRICKWOEK. 


11 


30 


31 


36 


12       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section   3.— DRAINAGE. 

Land  drains  naturally  to  streams  and  rivers. 

1-5     Glazed  earthenware  drain-pipes. 

\-  '•  ! 

6  Drain-pipe  bedded  in  concrete. 

7  Cleaning  branch   and  eye  for  a  drain-pipe,  with  box  and 

cover. 

8  Inspection  chamber,   brick  in  cement,  with  cast-iron  cover 

and  frame  and  open  junctions. 

9  Smaller  inspection  box  :  the  drain  may  have  a  branch  and 

cover  as  shown  or  open  half-round  pipe  as  No.  8. 

10-12     Open,  half -round,  and  closed  junctions  for  inspection 
chambers. 

13-16     Land  drains  :   subsoil  drains. 

17  Open  canal  or  cut  drain  for  surface  water. 

18  Stonework  box  drain. 

19  Circular  stonework  drain. 

20  Oval  ditto. 

21  Egg  oval  brick  sewer. 


DRAINAGE. 


13 


13 


14-  15 


16 


17 


19 


14       CIVIL    ENGINEEEING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

22  Arched  brick  sewer  on  flat  brickwork  base. 

23  Egg  oval  drain  on  concrete  base. 

24  Another  form  of  ditto. 

25  Main  sewer  in  an  earthen  embankment. 

26  Cast-iron  pipe  sewer  lined  with  brick  or  concrete  and  carried 

across  a  river  or  stream  on  steel  girders. 

27-30     Forms  of  surface  traps  in  general  use. 

31  Pedestal  closet-pan  and  trap  with  flush  pipe.     There  are 

numerous  varieties  of  this  type. 

32  Trap  and  cleaning  eye  combined. 

33  Draining  marsh   land  or  lake  by  syphon   carried   over   an 

embankment  wall. 

Separate  sewers  are  sometimes  used  for  surface  and  domestic 
drainage. 


Marshes  are  drained  into  rivers  and  streams  by  open  drains 
intersecting  the  marsh  and  emptying  into  a  main  drain  usually 
inside  and  parallel  to  the  river  wall.  From  this  drain  the 
water  is  run  through  sluices  in  the  wall  at  low  tide. 


DEAINAGE, 


15 


24- 


31 


16       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


Section    4.— MOTIVE-POWER. 

It  is  assumed  that  all  physical  energy  is  derived  more  or  less  directly 
from  the  sun,  whose  rays  combine  ;  1,  heat ;  2,  light ;  3,  actinic  or 
chemical  power. 

Heat  may  be  obtained— 

a  By  direct  use  of  the  sun's  rays. 
b  From  any  combustible  material. 
c  From  chemical  reaction. 

Light  does  not  separately  develop  power. 

Chemical  reactions  are  employed  to  develop  heat,  combustion, 
contraction,  or  expansion,  as  means  of  developing  power. 

From  the  foregoing  elementary  physical  sources  the  following  are  the 
practical  sources  of  our  power  for  mechanical  purposes- : — 

Electrical  power. 

Magnetic  power. 

Tidal  motion. 

Falling  water. 

Descending  weights. 

Wave  motion. 

Wind. 

Expansion  of  air  or  other  gases. 

Steam. 

Explosives. 

Fuels,  hydrocarbons,  etc. 

'These  are  employed  in  producing  power  by  the  following  apparatus  or 
motors : — 

Electric  motors  driven  from  a  dynamo,  battery,  or  accumu- 
lator. 

Magnetic  power  cannot  be  employed  continuously  as  a  motor, 
as  its  work  is  restricted  to  attraction. 

Tidal  motion  can  be  utilized  to  drive  any  kind  of  wheel,  see 
Water  Wheels,  Section  28.  It  can  also  be  stored  in  a 
reservoir,  driving  a  water  engine  as  it  flows  in  and  out  on 
the  flood  and  ebb ;  or  a  floating  vessel  may,  by  its  rise  and 
fall,  communicate  motion  to  machines. 

Falling  water  ;  for  machines  employed  to  utilize,  see  Water 
Wheels,  Turbines,  Water-pressure  Engines,  etc.,  Section  28. 

Descending  weights  must  first  of  course  be  raised,  absorbing 
as  much  power  in  raising  as  they  give  out  in  falling,  neglecting 
friction.  Clockwork,  water,  or  compression  of  a  spring,  and 
multiplying  pulleys  are  the  apparatus  employed  to  utilize 
this  form  of  energy. 


MOTIVE-POWER.  17 

Wave  motion  is  too  uncertain  and  erratic  to  be  a  practicable 
source  of  power.  Rocking  air-compressing  chambers,  rocking 
pumps,  etc.,  have  obtained  some  small  measure  of  success. 

Wind,  windmills. 

Expansion  of  air  and  gases.  Ascending  currents  of  hot 
air  from  a  fire  are  used  to  drive  a  light  screw  motor,  fan,  etc. 
Hot-air  engines,  see  Ryder's  patent  and  numerous  others, 
which  act  by  alternate  expansion  and  contraction  of  air  by 
heating  and  cooling.  Air  compressed  in  an  accumulator  or 
reservoir  is  employed  to  give  motion  to  multiplying  pulleys 
or  an  air  engine. 

Expansion  of  liquids,  other  than  water  (by  heat),  into  the 
gaseous  form.  Engines  in  which  the  fuel  is  burnt  under 
pressure  and  the  total  products  of  combustion  employed 
(with  or  without  steam)  to  drive  a  motor. 

Steam  is  in  reality  one  of  the  last-mentioned  sources  of 
power ;  it  is  employed  by  direct  pressure  on  a  piston  or 
ram  ;  or  to  produce  direct  rotary  motion  also  in  the  jet 
pump ;  or  injector ;  or  by  direct  pressure  on  a  body  of 
water  contained  in  a  closed  vessel,  as  in  the  pulsometer, 
steam  accumulator,  etc. 

Explosives  are  substances  which,  by  application  of  flame, 
heat,  percussion,  etc.,  suddenly  assume  the  gaseous  form, 
thus  increasing  their  bulk  many  hundred  times,  usually  in 
a  small  fraction  of  a  second  of  time.  A  second  class  comprises 
explosive  mixtures  of  gases,  such  as  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 
carburetted  hydrogen,  and  air.  Some  attempts  have  been 
made  to  employ  explosive  substances  to  drive  engines  in 
various  ways,  but  with  no  permanent  success.  The  second 
class  of  explosive  mixtures  of  gases  is  largely  employed  in 
the  gas  engine,  petroleum  engine,  and  their  varieties. 

Fuels,  hydrocarbons,  etc.,  are  employed  to  evaporate  water 
into  steam  ;  to  expand  air  or  other  gases,  or  convert  liquids 
into  gases ;  and  also  by  vaporization  to  supply  gas  for  use  in 
numerous  forms  of  gas  and  oil  engines. 

Hot-air  motor.  A  current  of  hot  air  passing  up  a  flue 
revolves  an  air  turbine. 

Naphtha  engines  are  gas  engines  employing  the  vapour  of 
naphtha  and  air  as  an  explosive  mixture,  instead  of  that  of 
petroleum  (oil  engine)  or  carburetted  hydrogen  gas  (gas 
engine). 


18      CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 
Section   5.— BRIDGES   AND   GIRDERS. 

(For  details  of  girders,  booms,  struts,  and  ties  see  Sections  8  and  10.) 

MASONRY    BRIDGES. 

1  Semicircular  arch. 

2  Elliptical  arch. 

3  Gothic  arch. 

4  Byzantine  arch. 

5  Moorish  arch. 

6  Skew  arch  bridge. 

7  Lintel  over  door  or  window. 

8  Flat  brick  arch. 

9  Semi-arch. 

10  Three-hinge  arch  bridge. 

TIMBER    BRIDGES. 

11  Simple  pile  and  girder  bridge  or  gantry. 

12  Pile  and  girder  bridge  or  gantry  with  struts. 

13  Horizontal  stepped-timber  girder  bridge. 

14  Timber  girder  bridge  with  double  struts  and  masonry  piers, 


BEIDGES   AND   GIRDERS 


19 


13 


14 


10 


20      CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


15     Horizontal  stepped-timber  girder  on  masonry  piers. 


16     Braced    timber     girder,    double    strutted    and    carried    on 
masonry  piers. 


17     Similar  bridge,  but  on  double  pile  piers. 


18-22     Timber-braced   girder   bridges.      The  bracing  may  be 
wholly  wood  or  wholly  or  partly  steel. 


23-4     Arched  timber  bridges,  braced. 

25  Timber-braced  girder  with  vertical  steel  ties. 

26  Timber  arch  bridge  with  laminated  arch  and  radial  struts. 


27     Combined    bowstring    and    horizontal    braced    girder 
bridge. 


BKIDGES    AND    GIRDERS. 


15 


TT       TT 


16 


/ 


18 


19 


26 


22     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

28  Timber  gantry  or  viaduct  with  timber  wings  to  support  an 

embankment  or  abutment. 

29  Cross  section  of  ditto. 
30-2     Cast-iron  bridges. 


CAST-IRON    BRIDGES. 
33-4     Cast-iron  braced  girders. 
35-41     Cross  sections  of  various  types  of  cast-iron  girders. 

42  Cast-iron  girder  with  parallel  flanges. 

43  Ditto,  with  curved  top  flange. 

44  Cast-iron  fish-bellied  girder  with  steel  truss  rods. 

45  Cast-iron  girder  with  steel  truss  rods. 

STEEL    GIRDERS. 
46-8     Sections  of  rolled  steel  girders. 

49-51     Sections  of  built-up  girders  formed  of  rolled  girders,  channels, 
angles,  and  plates. 


BRIDGES    AND    GIRDERS. 


23 


28 


30 


33 


42 


29 


41 


39 


38 


37 


36 


50  51 


44 


46        47         4-8  49 


45 


1] 


24       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


52-3     Sections  of   built-up  girders,  formed   of   rolled   girders, 

L  irons,  and  plates. 

54-7  Sections  of  pressed  steel  troughs  for  bridge  floors. 
Small  bridges  are  frequently  constructed  of  troughs  across 
the  span  as  girders. 

58-61     Bulb  and  U  steel  girders. 

62  Plate  girder  with  parallel  flanges. 

63  Ditto,  with  fish-belly  bottom  flange. 

STEEL    BRIDGES. 

64-6     Braced  girders  with  horizontal  flanges. 
67     Lattice  girder. 
68-9     Warren  girders. 


70-4  Bowstring  braced  girders.  In  No.  74  the  dotted  lines 
show  a  method  of  strengthening  the  top  flange  sometimes 
employed. 


BRIDGES    AND    GIRDERS. 


25 


52 


53 


54- 


A 


55 


56 


58          59         60        61  57 


1 
& 


62 


63 


64- 


65 


66 


\/v 


67 


68 


69 


73  74- 


72 


\ 


X 


26       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


75-8     Braced  arched  girders. 


79     Combined     horizontal    and    Warren    type    bowstring 
girder. 


80     Bowstring  and  fish-belly  braced  Warren  type  girder. 
81-3     Braced  arched  girders. 
84-5     Bowstring  girder  bridges. 

86  Trussed  braced  girder. 

87  Diagonal  braced  American  type  girder. 


BRIDGES    AND    GIRDERS. 


27 


28       CIVIL    ENGINEEKING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


88-9     Trussed  braced  girders. 


SUSPENSION    BRIDGES. 

90  Ordinary  catenary  suspension  bridge  with  vertical  ties. 

91  Suspension  bridge  with  braced  horizontal  boom. 

92  Ditto  with  diagonal  and  vertical  ties. 

93  Ditto  with  braced  catenary. 

94  Ditto  with  diagonal  ties. 

95  Ditto  with  braced  catenary. 

96  Ditto  with  counterb raced  vertical  ties  (or  struts). 


BKIDGES    AND    GIRDERS. 


29 


88 


90 


91 


XXXi 


96 


30      CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


97     Suspension  bridge  with  Warren  type  bracings. 

98-9     Cantilever  bridges  with  central  girder. 
100-1     Braced  arch  bridges. 

102     Centre  and  two-side  spans,  cantilever  continuous. 
103-5     Braced  arch  bridges. 


BRIDGES    AND    GIRDERS. 


81 


32       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


106  Braced  arch  bridge  with  two  side  spans. 

107  Arched  centre  span  and  two  semi-arch  side  spans. 


108     Double   cantilever  bridge  with  diagonal  pier   struts    and 
central  girder. 


109     Another  form  of  the  last. 


110     Bowstring    tubular    plate    girder    bridge   with    tubular 
top  boom. 


Ill     Braced  bowstring  girder  with  tubular  top  boom. 


112-13     Sections  of  the  last  two. 


BRIDGES    AND    GIRDERS. 


33 


34       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


114     Double     cantilever    bridge    with    vertical    and    diagonal 
bracing  and  central  girder. 

In  the  last  three  types  the  roadway  is  carried  on  the  lower 
horizontal  boom. 


115     Ditto  with  horizontal  top  boom  forming  the  roadway. 


116     Ditto  with  arched  top  and  bottom  booms. 


117     Ditto  with  arched  bottom  boom. 

In   the   last    two   types   the   roadway   is   carried    on    the 
vertical  braces. 


118     Combined     horizontal    and    bowstring     bridge    with 
vertical  ties. 


119  Tubular  plate  girder  bridge. 

120  Section  of  the  last  with  cellular  top  boom. 

121  Ditto  with  stiffened  top  boom. 


BEIDGES    AND    GIKDERS. 


14- 


118 


7 


I 


\ 


119 


1 1 1  1 1 1 1  I 


120 


36       CIVIL    ENGINEEKING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

122  Lattice  girder. 

BRIDGE    FLOORS. 

123  Longitudinal  plank  flooring  on  rolled  cross  girders. 

124  Longitudinal  plank  floor,  covered  with  asphalt  and  ballast, 

banked  for  a  curved  line  of  sleeper  railway. 

125  Transverse    flat   or  trough  plates,  covered  with  asphalt, 

old  bricks,  and  ballast  for  sleeper  railway. 

126  Plate  cross  girders  carrying   longitudinal  rail  sleepers  and 

rolled  joists. 

127  Longitudinal  section  of  floor  constructed  of  rolled   cross 

girders  with  arched  brick  filling,  carrying  asphalt  and  ballast 
for  a  sleeper  railway. 

128  Transverse  troughs   (see  Nos.   54-6)  filled  with  ballast  for 

a  sleeper  railway. 

129  Ditto  carrying  longitudinal  sleeper  railway. 

130  Longitudinal  troughs  carrying  longitudinal  sleeper  railway. 

131  Ditto  on  arched  plates  riveted  to   longitudinal J  rolled    girders 

carried  on  cross  girders. 

132  Plate  girders,  transverse  and  longitudinal,  supporting  plank 

flooring  and  longitudinal  rail  sleepers. 


BRIDGES    AND    GIEDERS. 


37 


123 


i     i    i      i    i  i     i    r 


126 


127 


J28 


129 


132 


130 


38       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


133     Longitudinal    sleepers    supported   in   longitudinal   troughs 
carried  by  cross  girders. 


134     Transverse    rolled    girders   supporting   arched   plates   and 
ballast  for  a  railway. 


135  Carriage  roadway  and  two  footways  of  wood  or 
granite  setts  with  concrete  channels,  carried  on  planking 
and  longitudinal  girders,  with  concrete  arched  filling. 


136     Ditto    with    cast-iron    channels    laid    on  three  thicknesses   of 
planking  on  cambered  cross  girders. 


137     Cambered  roadway  of  wood  or  granite  setts  on  cast- 
iron  plates  and  longitudinal  rolled  girders. 


138     Ditto  on  arched  steel  plates  and  cross  girders. 


139     Sleeper  railway  on  longitudinal  plank  floor  carried  on  cross 
girders. 


140     Sleeper  railway  banked  for  a  curved  line  on  ballast  and 
longitudinal  trough  plates  and  sloping  cross  girders. 


141  Double  line  of  flange  rails  on    plank   floor   supported 

on  four  longitudinal  sleepers. and  cross  girders. 

142  Transverse  section  of  a  girder  bridge  having  transverse 

arched  top  bracing. 


BEIDGES    AND    GIRDERS. 


39 


14-1 


40       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


143  Bowstring  plate  girder. 

144  Arched  plate  girder. 

145  Plan  of  girder  bridge  with  diagonal  wind  bracing. 
146-8     Sections  of  plate  girders. 

149-50     Platework  and  T  standard  parapet. 


151-2     Tube  rail  bridge  parapet,  with   cast-    or   wrought-iron 
standards. 


153-4     Cast-iron  panelled  parapet. 


BRIDGES    AND    GIRDERS. 


41 


14-3 


42       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


155-7     Elevation  plan  and  section  of  light  rope  suspension 
bridge. 


158~9     Braced  bridge  of  triangular  cross  section. 

160  Type  of  railway  crossing  footbridge  in  timber  or  steel. 

161  Pontoon  bridge  on  boats,  pontoons,  rafts,  or  barrels. 
Reinforced  concrete  girders.     (See  Section  42.) 
Bridge  parapets.     (See  Section  36.) 


BRIDGES    AND    GIRDERS. 


43 


'159 


L 


161 


V 


160 


44       CIVII,    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 
Section    6.— IRON    BUILDINGS. 

(For  details  of  steelwork  see  Section  10  ;  for  iron  roofs  see  Sect.  41.) 

1  Galvanized  corrugated  iron  or  steel  building  with  arched 

roof  (see  Section  41)  and  walls  framed  of  T  and  L  irons. 

2  Iron  shed  (any  type  of  roof,  see  Section  41)  carried  on  cast-iron 

or  steel  columns  (see  Section  8),  and  either  open  sides  or  wood 
or  corrugated  steel  filling  on  framing. 

3  Side  elevation  of  side  of  iron  building. 

4  Ditto  of  open  side  building. 

5  Ditto,  ornamented  in  cast  iron. 

6  Details  of  iron  buildings  with    H   columns  and  corrugated 

sides. 


Corrugated  iron  dwellings,  bungalows,  sheds,  stables, 
schools,  chapels,  and  other  buildings  are  of  very  varied  design 
and  do  not  require  illustration.  They  are  generally  lined  inside 
with  matched  boarding,  or  studding  covered  with  fibrous  plaster, 
and  the  fire-places,  flues,  and  chimneys  built  of  brickwork  with 
wood  or  concrete  floors.  Such  buildings  are  frequently  made 
to  take  apart  and  pack  for  export,  and  are  easily  erected  on 
a  shallow  concrete  wall  foundation. 


Steel  frame  and  masonry  buildings.  Steel  frames  are  now 
commonly  employed  for  all  large  buildings,  the  brickwork, 
masonry,  and  reinforced  concrete  walls,  floors,  and  partitions 
being  constructed  to  enclose  the  steel  framing.  (See  Section  42.) 


IRON   BUILDINGS. 


45 


Or  -ilk 


a- 


46       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


Section  7.— WOOD  FRAMING  AND  STRUCTURES. 

(For  wood  bridges  see  Section  5  ;  wood  fencing,  see  Section  36  ;   wood 
roofs,  see  Section  41.) 

1-7     Junctions  of  crossing  or  right-angled  timbers. 
8-10     Junctions  of  rafters  and  principals. 

11  Rafter  and  wall-plate  or  purlin. 

12  Crossing  of  girder  and  tie  beam. 
13,  14     Post  and  girder  junctions. 

15,  16     Scarfing  longitudinal  timbers. 
17,  18     Ditto,  notched,  for  tensile  strains. 
19-21     Scarfs  with  keys  and  bolts. 


WOOD   TEAMING   AND    STRUCTURES. 


47 


16 


15 


21 


20 


48       CIVIL    ENGINEEEING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


22-3     Other  scarf  joints,  keyed  or  notched. 

24-5     Post  and  girder  junctions  with  struts  and  head-pieces. 

26-8     Laminated  arch.     (See  Section  5.) 

29  Junction  of  rafter,  purlin,  and  queen  post. 

30  Junction  of  purlin,  queen  post,  and  rafter. 

31  Queen  post  and  principal. 


WOOD   FRAMING   AND    STRUCTURES. 


49 


22 


23 


50       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


32     Junction  of  principal,  rafters,  and  king-rod  in  cast-iron 

sockets. 


33-4     Scarf  joints. 

35-9     Matched  or  outside  boardings. 


Buildings  wholly  of  wood  are  frequently  used,  and  in  some 
cases  constructed  to  take  apart  for  packing  for  export,  bolts, 
nuts,  and  screws  being  used  for  the  disjointed  parts. 


Wood  pile  structures.     (See  Sections  29,  37.) 
Wood  dams  and  weirs.     (See  Section  43.) 


WOOD   FEAMING   AND    STRUCTURES.  51 


33 


34- 


39 


52       CIVI1,    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 
Section    8.— COLUMNS,    STRUTS,    AND    TIES. 

(For  wood  columns  and  struts  see  Section  7  ;    for  reinforced  concrete 
columns  see  Section  42.) 

1-3     Cast-iron  round  column  and  base. 

4     Ditto,  but  cross-shaped  section. 

5-7     Cast-iron  H  section  column  and  foot. 

8     Cast-iron  round  column  with  stiffening  ribs. 

9-11     Fluted  square  cast-iron  column  with  round  core. 
12-14     Wall  pilaster  columns. 
15,  16     Box  or  raised  bases  for  cast-iron  column. 

17  Steel  tube  column  fixed  in  cast-iron  base. 

18  Upper  floor  junction  of  cast-iron  columns  and  steel  girders. 

19  H  steel  column  or  strut. 

20  Ditto,  with  two  plates. 

21-2     Built-up  steel  columns  or  struts. 

23     Double  flat  bar  tie  with  cast-iron  distance  pieces. 

24-7     Built-up  open  steel  columns  or  struts. 


COLUMNS,   STRUTS,   AND    TIES. 


53 


18 


VL1    ILJ 

— i   rl 


21 


L_J) 

ri 


22 


24- 


25 


26 


54       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 
28-9     Box-form  built  steel  columns. 

30  Double  channel  bar  strut  stiffened  with  cast-iron  distance 

pieces. 

31  Double  T  and  plate  strut. 

32-8     Hollow  or  box-form  steel  columns  for  heavy  loads. 

39  Cross  steel  strut. 

40  Double  channel  and  H  bar  steel  strut. 

41  Box-form  steel  column  for  heavy  loading. 
42-5     Steel  lattice  columns. 

46     Double  H  steel  column  with  cast-iron  distance  pieces. 

47-8  Built-up  steel  columns.  For  high-class  buildings  these 
and  the  girders  and  flooring  are  usually  covered  with  terra- 
cotta hollow  blocks,  as  No.  47. 

49     Box-  or  lattice-form  steel  column. 
50-1     Built  lattice  column. 

52-3  Column  formed  of  four  round  steel  bars,  connected  by  cross- 
shaped  horizontal  braces. 


COLUMNS,    STRUTS,    AND    TIES. 


55 


28 


29 


b    m 


30 


52 


I     nl    IQl 


51 


56       CIVIL    ENGINEEEING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


54     Section    of    two    box-form    steel    columns,    joined    by 
transverse  plates  or  stays. 


55     Elevation  of  head  of  last-named. 


56-7     Double  H  lattice  steel-tapered  column. 


58-9     Double  L  steel  lattice  column  or  strut. 


60-3     Cast-iron  columns. 


COLUMNS,   STBUTS,   AND    TIES. 


57 


|u  • 

o   o 

o. 

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0 

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0 

o 

o, 

o: 

!;o         o; 

ii  O             O  ' 

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1 

1 

|  ]    ; 

60 


61 


58       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


Section    9.— ANCHORAGES. 


1     Rope  pulley  anchor  truck,  which  grips  by  sinking  its  wheels 
in  the  soil ;  employed  for  ploughing  tackle. 


2  Anchor  plate,  buried  in  the  ground  below  a  mass  of  masonry, 
for  attaching  guys,  tie-rods,  etc.  Sometimes  a  frame  or  plate 
laid  on  the  ground  and  ballasted  is  the  method  used. 


3     Screw  mooring.    (See  Section  39.)    Screwed  into  the  ground. 


4  Heavy  stone  sunk  in  the  ground  and  having  a  ring  attached ; 
or  a  mass  of  concrete  similarly  placed.  Used  for  guy  ropes, 
tie-rods,  and  foundation  bolt  attachments. 


5     Grapnel. 


6     Mushroom  anchor. 


7     Double  fluke  anchor. 


8     Martin's  patent   anchor,    with   swivelling   flukes.      Several 
other  patent  anchors  are  modifications  of  this. 


9     Anchorage    for    suspension    bridge    chains   with   rolling 
expansion  bearing. 


ANCHORAGES. 


59 


60       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


10     Anchorage  for  suspension  bridge. 

Anchored  concrete  roof.     (See  Section  42.) 
Anchored  buoys  and  moorings.     (See  Section  32.) 


ANCHOKAGES, 


61 


62       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


Section  10.— CONSTRUCTIONAL    STEELWORK. 

(See  also  Sections  4,  5,  6,  8,  42.) 

1-6     Details  of  junctions  of  roof  bracings  with  principal  ties. 
7     Crossing  of  two  T  bars. 
8-11     Roof  bracings,  junctions  of  braces  with  principal  ties. 

12-14     Cap  of  steel  column. 

15-17     Roof  principals,  wall  junctions. 

18-27     Sections  of  top  booms  of  steel-braced  or  plate  girders. 

28-30     Sections  of  box-form  top  booms  of  steel-plate  girders. 


CONSTRUCTIONAL   STEELWORK. 


63 


64       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


31-2     Sections   of  box-form  top  booms  of  steel-plate  girders. 


33  Section  of  bottom  boom  of  braced  girder,  formed  of  four 
plates  separated  by  distance  pieces,  and  showing  bearings  for 
cross  girders. 


34  Ditto,  formed  of  two  channel  bars,  with  transverse  plate  stiffeners. 

35  Box-form  top  boom  of  plate  girder. 


36  Section  of  bottom  boom  of  braced  girder  with  two  plates 
and  transverse  plate  stiffeners,  showing  suspension  of  cross 
plate  girders. 


37-42     Sections  of  struts    or   compression   members   of  bracing. 
(See  also  Section  8.) 


43-4     Roof  principals,  column  bearings. 
45     Cross  section  of  plate  girder. 
46-9     Side  elevations  of  plate  girders. 


Junction  of  cross  girders  on  bottom  trough -shaped  boom 
of  braced  girder. 


CONSTRUCTIONAL   STEELWORK. 


65 


50 


39 


37  38 


4-6 


4-1  4.2 


45 


43 


44- 


66       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section  II.— FLOORS  AND    PARTITIONS. 
Bridge  floors.     (See  Section  5.) 

Reinforced  concrete  floors.     (See  Section  41.) 
1     Ordinary  joist  floor,  boarded. 
2-3     Floor  boardings,  various  types. 

4  Double  boarding. 

5  Parquet,  cement  or  asphalt  on  boarding. 

6  Wood    brick    floor   bedded    on    sand    or   asphalt,    on   close 

boarding. 

7  Girder  and  joist  floor,  boarded. 

8  Cross  section  of  last-named. 


9     H  steel  joists  and  concrete  floor,  covered  with  asphalt,  wood 
bricks,  cement,  stone  slabs,  or  tiles,  bedded  on  cement. 


10     Ditto,  covered  with  concrete,  stone,  or  slate  slabs. 


11     Ditto,  brick  arches,  and  concrete  floor,  finished  either  in  cement, 
tiles,  etc. 


FLOORS    AND    PARTITIONS. 


67 


1 


\  I   I  I  \   I  \   I  l  1  I 


!L 


10 


I 

II 


68       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


12     H  steel  joists  and  concrete  with  flat  soffit  to  take  a  plaster 
ceiling  ;  coverings  may  be  as  No.  9. 


13  Reinforced  concrete  floor  on  H  steel  joists.     (See  Sect.  41.) 

14  H  steel  joists  with  concrete  arches  and  any  covering,  as  No.  9. 


15     Ditto,  with  hollow  brick  arches  and  concrete  and  any  covering, 
as  No.  9. 


16     Ditto  and  concrete  on  iron  cross  bars. 


17,  18     Sections  of  ditto. 


19-21     Similar  floor,  but  with  channel-shaped  earthenware  bearers 
on  steel  cross  bars. 


22     H  steel  joists  with  concrete  filling,  covered  with  wood  boarding 
on  crossed  strips. 


23     Ditto,    connected  by  diagonal    bars    with   concrete  filling ;    any 
covering,  as  No.  9. 


24     Ditto,  carrying  on  their  bottom  flanges  concrete  slabs  supporting 
an  ordinary  wood  joist  and  boarded  floor,  as  No.  1. 


25  L  (or  H)  bar  joists  filled  between  by  arches  formed  of  inter- 
locked hollow  bricks ;  coverings  may  be  of  any  kind,  as  No.  9. 
Ceilings  below  formed  of  ceiling  strips  and  plaster. 


FLOOES    AND    PARTITIONS. 


69 


12 


III 


14- 


15 


22 


I 


I 


23 


24 


70       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


26  H  steel  joists  filled  between  by  hollow  brick  lumps  serrated  on 
underside  for  a  ceiling  and  covered  with  concrete  and  any  finish, 
as  No.  9. 


27     Ditto,  filled  with  flat  arches  of  toggle -jointed  arch  bricks  ;    any 
covering,  as  No.  9. 


28     Ditto,  flat  arches  of  hollow  arch  bricks,  and  concrete  or  other 
covering. 


29  Steel  trough  floor  (see  Section  5),  filled  with  concrete  in 
which  wood  floor  strips  are  bedded  to  take  wood  boarding,  as 
Nos.  2,  3. 


30     Another  form  of  No.  28. 

81     Close  wood  joisting,  tongued  below  for  ceiling  plaster. 
Partitions.     (See  Section  2,  Nos.  35,  36,  and  Section  41.) 


Brick  partitions  are  usually  of  half  brick  or  brick  on  edge,  in 
mortar  or  cement. 


Ordinary  partitions  are  of  wood  scantlings  covered  with  lath 
and  plaster,  matched-boarding,  fibrous  plaster  slabs,  lath  and 
cement,  etc. 


FLOORS    AND    PARTITIONS. 


71 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


72       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 
Section    12.— ROOF    COVERINGS. 

Thatch.  Formed  of  reeds  laid  on  a  bed  of  straw  and  fastened  down 
by  ash  spears,  galvanized  wires,  etc. 

Slates.  Laid  on  laths  or  close  boarding,  made  in  many  sizes, 
secured  by  zinc  or  copper  nails,  and  unprotected  places  covered  by 
lead  or"  zinc  flashings. 

Tiles.  Hollow  (pan)  or  flat ;  concrete  tiles ;  secured  usually  by 
fillets  on  the  underside,  which  hook  on  to  wood  laths. 

Wood  shingles.  Split  boards  laid  to  lap  as  slates,  sometimes  held 
down  by  stones,  but  usually  nailed  down  to  boards,  laths,  or  purlins. 

Boarding.  Various  sections,  as  Nos.  1-3,  Section  11,  tarred  or 
covered  with  tarred  canvas,  "rubberoid"  sheeting,  tarred  felt, 
"  Willesden  "  paper,  sheet  zinc,  or  lead. 

Concrete  (reinforced)  with  wire  or  expanded  steel  netting.  (See 
Section  41.) 

Glass,  in  frames  or  as  glass  slates. 

Galvanized  corrugated  steel.     (See  Section  6.) 

Galvanized  flat  sheets  laid  on  boarding.     Zinc  or  copper  sheets. 

Section  13.— ROADS  AND   STREETS. 

1  Macadam  road,  consists  of  rough  stone  base  about  1  foot  deep, 

with  a  6  in.  layer  of  broken  stone  and  a  little  fine  ballast ; 
rolled  down  by  heavy  roller. 

2  Tarmac  road  ;  similar  to  No.  1,  but  the  upper  surface  is  saturated 

with  coal  tar. 

3  Wood  brick  paved  road,  laid  on  asphalt,  above  9  in.  to  1  ft. 

of  concrete. 

4  Granite  cubes,  laid  on  concrete   or  hard  rolled  rough  broken 

stone. 

5  Gravel  road,  formed  of  3  in.  of  gravel  on  broken  stone  base, 

for  light  traffic. 

6  Tramway  road.     (See  Section  23.) 

Asphalt  roads  are  formed  of  li    to   2  in.  of  Limmer  or  Val 
de  Travers  or  other  natural  asphalt  on  concrete  base. 


EOADS  AND   STREETS. 


rm  irrrniTTrrrrrrr^ 


74       CIVIJj    ENGINEEKING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section  14.— ROLLED    IRON   AND   STEEL   BARS, 
PLATES,  ETC.,  USED   IN   CONSTRUCTION. 

The  following  memoranda  relate  only  to  such  materials  as 
are  required  in  connexion  with  machinery  or  mechanical 
constructions,  and  are  intended  to  supply  particulars  of  the 
dimensions  of  the  manufactured  or  raw  material,  giving  the 
sections  manufactured  and  the  limits  as  to  size  available  for 
incorporation  in  any  design  under  consideration. 

Rolled  iron  and  steel  bars  are  manufactured  as  below  : — 
Rounds,  from  -fe  to  7f  in.  diameter  and  up  to  18  ft.  long. 
Squares,  from  rVto  6  in.  square,  and  up  to  18  ft.  long. 
Flats,  from  \  to  14  in.  wide,  and  up  to  18  ft.  long. 

L  iron  sections  are  made  from  f  by  f  in.  up  to  14  by  3f  in., 
or  to  12f  united  inches,  with  equal  or  unequal  flanges,  and  up 
to  30  ft.  long;  but  the  acute,  obtuse,  and  round  angled  sections 
are  not  usually  stocked. 

T  irons,  from  1  by  1  in.  up  to  12  united  inches,  or  to 
9  by  4  in.,  and  up  to  30  ft.  long. 

Rolled  girder  iron,  from  3  in.  deep  to  20  in.  deep  by  10  in. 
flanges,  and  to  36  ft.  long  in  hundreds  of  sections. 

Zore  girders,  from  3  to  8  in.  deep,  and  to  24  ft.  long. 
Channel  iron,  from  f  to  12  in.  wide,  and  to  25  ft.  long. 
Convex  iron,  from  1  to  6  in.  wide,  and  up  to  20  ft.  long. 
Cope  iron,  from  1  to  4  in.  wide,  and  to  20  ft.  long. 

1  Half-round  iron,  from  \  to  4  in.  wide,  and  to  20  ft.  long. 

2  Funnel  ring  iron,  from  3|  by  iV  in.  to  8  by  T9¥  in.  wide,  and 

up  to  18  ft.  long. 

3  Jackstay  iron. 

4  Half  round  groove  iron. 

5  Double-headed  rail,  30  to  60  ft.  long. 

6  Flanged  rail. 

7  Bridge  rail. 

8  Bulb  angle  iron. 

9  Bulb  girder  iron. 
10  Bulb  angle  iron. 


EOLLED    IKON    AND    STEEL    BARS,  '  75 


o 


o 


10 


12 


13 


o     o 


15 


16  17 


18  19  20  21  22 


23  24  25  26 


27 


76       CIVIL    ENG1NEEKING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

11  Bulb  web  plate. 

12  Column  iron. 

13  Tram  plate. 

14  Ditto. 

15  Tramway  rail. 
16-18     Firebar  iron. 

19  Double  angle  iron. 

20  Cross  iron. 

21-3     Casement  bars. 

24  Fire  bearer  iron. 

25  Octagon  iron. 

26  Hexagon. 

27  Tyre  bar. 

28-9     Bevelled  flat  iron. 

30  Trough  iron.     Used  for  bridge  flooring,  fire-proof  floors,  etc. 

31  Double  convex  iron. 
32-3     Tramplate  iron. 

34-5     Chair  or  sleeper  iron. 

36     Oval  iron. 

37-9     Round  edged  flats. 

40  Segment  round  iron. 

41  Round  edged  convex  iron. 

42  Bevelled  flat  iron. 

43  Bevel  edge  flat  iron. 

44  Bevelled  flat  iron. 

45  Round  edged  hollow  convex  iron. 

46  Taper  edged  hollow  convex  iron. 

47  Boiler  tube  expansion  ring  iron. 

48  Moulded  flat  bar. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  iron  ornamental  mouldings  are 
rolled  with  moulded  and  relief  ornaments  in  bars,  from 
f  to  2f  in.  wide,  and  up  to  16  or  18  ft.  long.  Also  plain 
mouldings  similar  in  sections  to  those  used  in  joinery. 


EOLLED    IRON   AND    STEEL    BARS.  77 


28  29 


30 


31 


<O 


32 


33 


34 


35 


37  38 

CD 


39  4-0 

is 


4-1  4-2 


O 


43 


44 


45 


46 


47 


49 


50 


S 


78       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Plates  (iron  and  steel)  are  manufactured  from  i  to  f  in.  thick 
ordinary.  Thicker  plates  are  rolled  to  order  up  to  20  in. 
thick. 

Stocked  sizes  of  ordinary  plates  are  4  by  2  ft.  up  to  14  ft.  by 
4  ft.  6  in. 

Strips  from  7  to  22  in.  wide,  and  up  to  30  ft.  long. 

Chequered  plates,  with  diamond,  oval,  or  square  recessed 
patterns,  are  made  6  by  2  ft.  up  to  8  ft.  by  3  ft.  6  in. 

Sheets,  plain,  in  thicknesses  from  No.  10  w.g.  to  No.  36  w.g., 
and  from  6  by  2  ft.  to  10  by  4  ft. 

Corrugated  sheets,  plain  or  galvanized,  from  No.  16  to 
No.  26  w.g.,  and  from  6  by  2  ft.  to  9  by  2  ft. 

Tinned  sheets,  same  as  above. 

Cold  rolled  sheets     „         ,, 

Planished  sheets       ,,         ,, 

Lead-coated  sheets    ,,         ,, 

Tin  plates,  terne  plates,  14  by  20  in.,  17  by  12|  in.,  15  by 
11  in.,  14  by  10  in.,  24  by  20  in.,  28  by  10  in.,  28  by  20  in. 

Hoops,  f  to  7  in.  wide,  and  from  No.  8  to  No.  24  w.g. 

49  Ribbed  plate  or  tram  plate. 

50  Trough  plate  for  flooring  bridges,  etc. 

51  Round  iron. 

52  Square  iron. 

53  Flat  bar  iron. 
54-8     Angle  irons. 

59  Rolled  joists. 

60  Fore  girder. 

61  Round  angled  L  iron. 
62-3     Tee  iron. 

64     Channel  iron. 
65-6     Tyre  iron. 

Iron  and  Steel  Plates. — It  is  essential  to  possess  some  knowledge 
of  what  sizes  and  weights  are  obtainable  at  ordinary  prices,  because  it 
is  frequently  desirable  to  utilize  the  largest  available,  in  order  to  save 
the  cost  of  making  joints.  Frequently  joints  are  made  by  riveting, 
not  because  they  are  wanted  at  all,  but  simply  because  they  cost  less 
than  single  plates  would  do.  Information  of  this  kind  is  only  to  be 


ROLLED    IRON   AND    STEEL    BARS.  79 


54- 


51  52 


55  56 


IX 


53 


L 


59 


6.0 


[58  62  | !  I  63 

'I 


66 


CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


obtained  from  the  price  lists  of  the  iron   and  steel  manufacturers, 
which  are  supplied  to  the  trade. 

The  meaning  of  "  maximum  dimensions  "  is  thus  :  Taking  a  1^  in. 
plate,  for  example,  the  maximum  dimensions  of  which  are  given  in 
a  list  as  40  ft.  in  length  by  10  ft.  in  width,  it  is  not  possible  to  get 
a  plate  measuring  40  by  10  ft.,  for  that  would  make  a  united  area  of 
400  ft.,  and  the  list  limit  is  150  ft.  area.  But  the  area  can  be  taken 
out  either  in  length  or  in  width,  within  the  limiting  length  of  40  ft. 
and  width  of  10  ft.  The  maximum  area  divided  by  any  length  in  feet 
not  exceeding  the  maximum,  will  give  the  maximum  width  for  that 
length ;  and  the  maximum  area  divided  by  any  width  in  feet  not 
exceeding  the  maximum,  will  give  the  maximum  length  for  that  luidth. 
Thus,  150  ft.  area  divided  by  the  maximum  length,  i.e.  40,  gives 
3  ft.  9  in.  width  of  plate.  Or  150  ft.  divided  by  the  maximum  width, 
i.e.  10,  gives  15  ft.  length  of  plate.  And  for  anything  over  these 
maximum  dimensions  special  quotations  have  to  be  made.  But  no 
plate  can  be  rolled  to  contain  the  greatest  length  and  the  greatest 
width  at  the  same  time. 

Again,  in  reference  to  "  extras  ",  many  points  have  to  be  borne  in 
mind.  Thus,  as  regards  shape,  any  departure  from  the  rectangiilar 
form  is  an  extra,  as  tapered  plates,  sketches,  i.e.  any  irregular  outlines, 
and  also  circles.  The  extra,  under  this  head,  may  be  about  25s.  per 
ton.  As  regards  thickness,  plates  under  ^  in.  thick  are  an  extra,  rated 
.at  from  10s.  to  20s.  per  ton  more.  As  regards  width  and  length, 
quite  special  terms  are  made,  amounting  to  5s.  perhaps  on  each  3  in., 
a  serious  item.  And  as  regards  weight,  steel  plates  over  about  40  cwt. 
are  charged  extra,  at  the  rate  of  about  5s.  per  5  cwt. 

To  give  examples :  The  Steel  Company  of  Scotland  roll  steel 
plates  from  yV  to  1^  in.  thick,  and  from  an  area  in  the  first  case 
of  30  ft.  to  150  ft.  in  the  latter.  The  thicknesses  advance  by  thirty - 
seconds  in  thickness  up  to  T%  in.,  by  sixteenths  up  to  J  in.,  and  by 
eighths  up  to  If  in.  The  following  table  will  give  an  idea  of  their 
limiting  sizes,  which  may  be  taken  as  fairly  typical  of  steel  plates  in 
general.  It  will  be  seen  that  I  have  included  only  a  few  of  the 
thicknesses  named  above. 

MAXIMUM. 


Thickness. 

Length. 

Width. 

Area. 

Thickness. 

Length. 

Width. 

Area. 

in. 

ft.     in. 

ft.    in. 

ft. 

in. 

ft.     in. 

ft.     in. 

ft. 

i 

22     0 

5     0 

50 

i 

40     0 

9     3 

140 

I 

33     0 

6     3 

90 

i 

40     0 

10     0 

150 

I 

38     0 

7     4 

100 

ij 

40     0 

10     0 

150 

i 

40     0 

8     3 

110 

l* 

40     0 

10     0 

150 

ROLLED    IRON   AND    STEEL    BARS. 


81 


David  Colville  &  Sons  roll  plates  from  i  to  1^  in.  in  thickness 
with  an  area  of  80  ft.  in  the  first  and  140  ft.  in  the  last ;  other  sizes 
intermediate.  But  by  special  arrangement  plates  ^  in.  thick  can  be 
rolled  to  140ft.  area,  and  l^in.  of  170ft.  Thirty  hundredweight  is 
the  limit  of  weight  in  ship  plates,  and  40  in  boiler  plates.  Plates 
up  to  6f  tons  weight  each  can  be  rolled  at  special  prices.  It  is 
impossible  to  roll  plates  exactly  to  weight,  and  it  is  usual  to  allow 
a  deviation  of  from  2i  to  5  per  cent  over  weight  for  boiler  plates,  and 
under  or  over  for  ordinary  plates. 

The  Parkhead  Steel  Works  roll  yV  in.  plates  to  a  maximum  area  of 
36  ft.,  i  in.  plates  to  70  ft.,  \  in.  plates  of  110  ft.,  j  in.  plates  of  140  ft., 
1  in.  plates  of  150  ft.,  and  Ij-in.  plates  of  150  ft.  area.  The  limiting 
weights  are  20  cwt.  for  ship  plates,  and  40  cwt.  for  boiler  plates. 
Above  these  5s.  per  5  cwt.,  or  part  of  the  same,  is  charged. 

The  Weardale  Iron  and  Coal  Company  roll  steel  plates  from  ^  to 
1 J  in.  thick,  with  a  maximum  area  of  60  ft.  in  the  first,  and  120  ft.  in 
the  second ;  30  ft.  is  the  maximum  length,  and  8  ft.  the  maximum 
width.  Circular  plates  are  also  rolled  from  5  ft.  6  in.  diameter  of 
i  in.  thick,  to  8  ft.  6  in.  diameter  in  1 J  in.  thick.  All  ordinary 
thicknesses,  also  intermediate  between  these,  are  rolled. 

The  limiting  weights  and  dimensions  of  the  steel  plates  of  Bolckow, 
Vaughan  &  Co.  are  18  cwt.  80  sq.  ft.  in  area,  23  ft.  in  length,  and 
between  12  and  60  in.  in  width.  Extras  are,  for  every  hundredweight, 
or  part  of  the  same,  above  18  cwt.,  10s. ;  for  every  foot,  or  part  of 
a  foot,  above  23  ft.  in  length,  5s.  ;  for  every  square  foot  above 
80  sq.  ft.,  Is. 

John  Brown  &  Co.,  Sheffield,  roll  steel  plates  from  i  to  li  in.  in 
thickness.  A  few  selected  thicknesses  are  given  below. 


Thickness. 

Length. 

Width. 

Area. 

..Thickness. 

Length. 

Width. 

Area. 

in. 

ft.     in. 

ft.    in. 

ft. 

in. 

ft.     in. 

ft.     in. 

ft. 

I 

30     0 

6     0 

72 

f 

40     0 

9     6 

180 

I 

35     0 

6     9 

120 

1 

40     0 

9     6 

180 

40     0 

8     0 

130 

ii 

40     0 

9     6 

180 

Circular  and  square  plates  of  the  same  thicknesses  can  be  rolled 
as  follows  : — 


Thickness. 

Diameter. 

Square. 

Thickness. 

Diameter. 

Square. 

in. 

ft.    in. 

ft.    in. 

in. 

ft.    in. 

ft.    in. 

* 

6     6 

6     6 

1 

10     6 

9     9 

1 

7     0 

7     0 

1 

10     6 

9     9 

i 

8     3 

8     3 

li 

10     6 

9     9 

82       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


The  Dalzell  Steel  Works  of  David  Colville  &  Sons  make  a  difference 
in  the  extras  in  the  case  of  steel  boiler  and  of  ship  plates.  Ordinary 
prices  are  charged  to  84  in.  wide  in  boiler  plates,  but  to  72  in.  only  in 
ship  plates.  Above  that  they  charge  5s.  per  ton  for  every  3  in.,  or 
part  of  3  in.  So  in  weight,  40  cwt.  is  the  limit  for  boiler  plates,  and 
30  cwt.  for  ship  plates  ;  over  those  5s.  per  ton  is  charged  for  every 
5  cwt.,  or  part  of  5  cwt.  Circular  plates  for  boiler  ends  and  crowns 
are  rolled  by  David  Colville  &  Sons,  who  supply  at  ordinary  prices 
the  following :  f  in.  thick,  9  ft.  10  in.  diameter  ;  fs  in.,  9  ft.  6  in.  ; 
f  in.,  9  ft.  ;  and  -fs  in.,  8  ft.  6  in. 

As  a  sample  of  the  usual  limiting  sizes  of  iron  plates,  I  give  the 
following :  It  consists  of  a  few  selected  Snedshill  plates  rolled  by  the 
Lilleshall  Company,  one  of  the  most  favourably  known  Shropshire 
houses.  They  roll  iron  sheets  and  boiler  plates  from  ^V  to  1  in.  in 
thickness,  advancing  by  thirty -seconds  to  -f$  in.,  and  by  sixteenths 
to  1  in. 


Thickness. 

Length. 

Width. 

Area. 

Thickness. 

Length. 

Width. 

Area. 

in. 

ft.     in. 

ft.   in. 

ft. 

in. 

ft.     in. 

ft.    in. 

ft. 

^ 

30     0 

5     0 

5 

1 

30     0 

6     0 

80 

g 

30     0 

5     6 

7 

i 

30     0 

6     0 

80 

1 

30     0 

6     0 

8 

i 

30     0 

6     0 

80 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  limiting  sizes  of  iron  are  much  less 
than  those  of  steel. 

The  Butterly  Company  roll  both  iron  and  steel  plates.  The  limiting 
weights  and  dimensions  are  as  follows  :  For  iron  boiler  quality,  8  cwt., 
above  that  the  extra  prices  are  20s.,  40s.,  60s.,  80s.  respectively,  from 
8  to  10  cwt.,  10  to  12  cwt.,  12  to  14  cwt.,  and  14  to  16  cwt.  respectively. 
For  bridge  quality  10  cwt.  is  the  limit,  and  extras  are  20s.  and  40s., 
from  10  to  12  cwt.,  and  from  12  to  16  cwt.  respectively.  Area  60ft., 
and  for  every  10  ft.  or  part  above  that,  20s.  ;  length  25  ft.  ;  width 
4  ft.  6  in.  ;  over  those  various  extras,  ranging  from  20s.  to  80s. 

Wire  :  of  various  sections,  manufactured  in  hard  iron,  soft 
iron,  soft  steel,  hard  steel,  tempered  steel,  piano  wire,  covered  wire 
(wound  with  either  cotton,  silk,  gutta-percha,  flax,  etc.),  or  copper 
wire.  Also  brass,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  and  other  metal  wire,  hard  or 
soft ;  tinned  iron  wire,  galvanized  iron  wire,  tinned  brass  wire, 
coppered  iron  wire,  lead-coated  iron  wire. 

Pipes  and  tubes  of  wrought  iron,  either  butt  or  lap  welded,  or 
solid  drawn,  are  made  in  four  qualities  or  strengths :  (l)  gas  tube  ; 
(2)  steam  or  water  tube ;  (3)  boiler  flue  tube ;  (4)  hydraulic 
tube.  These  are  manufactured  from  J  to  3  in.  internal  diameters  ; 


KOLLED    IRON   AND    STEEL    BARS.  83 

boiler  flue  tubes  to  9  in.  diameter,  but  much  larger  sizes  can  be 
made  to  order. 

Solid  drawn  steel  tubes  are  made  up  to  10  in.  diameter ;  larger 
sizes  are  made  to  order. 

Special  steel  or  wrought -iron  pipes,  flanged  with  L  iron,  are 
made  up  to  4  ft.  diameter  with  welded  joints,  and  welded  steel  or 
wrought-iron  socket  and  spigot  pipes  up  to  24  ft.  diameter. 

Cast-iron  pipes  are  made  in  the  following  strengths  : — Rain-water 
pipes,  hot-water  pipes,  gas  mains,  water  mains,  hydraulic  mains  for 
high  pressure,  and  the  thicknesses  of  metal  vary  according  to  the 
pressures.  Diameters  from  l^in.  up  to  4ft.,  and  lengths  usually 
6  and  9  ft. 

Castings  are  made  in  cast  iron  of  various  mixtures,  according  to 
strength,  toughness,  or  hardness  required,  and  of  any  weight  up 
to  20  tons.  Chilled-iron  castings  are  made  for  hard  wear,  as  in 
crusher  rolls,  etc.,  but  cannot  be  machined  ;  they  are  usually 
ground  smooth  by  a  grindstone  or  emery  wheel. 

Steel  castings  are  made  in  either  Bessemer,  Siemens  -  Martin, 
Thomas- Gilchrist,  or  in  crucible  steel,  the  latter  being  most  relied 
upon.  They  require  annealing  to  soften  them  sufficiently  for 
machining. 

Wrought-iron  castings,  Mitis  metal,  etc.,  are  also  obtainable,  but 
malleable  cast-iron  castings  are  most  relied  upon  for  toughness,  the 
process  having  now  attained  great  perfection,  but  is  not  applicable 
to  very  thick  castings. 

Pressed  iron  or  steel  forgings  of  simple  forms  are  now  obtainable 
at  low  prices.  Also  drop  forged  articles  of  almost  any  shapes. 

Forgings  in  wrought  iron  and  steel  can  now  be  made  to  almost  any 
size,  shape,  and  weight,  and  are  replacing  many  structures  formerly 
made  of  cast  iron  or  built  up. 

Other  metals  employed  are  copper,  brass,  tin,  zinc,  phosphor- 
bronze,  lead,  antimony,  bismuth,  pewter,  Muntz  metal,  aluminium, 
sodium,  potassium,  platinum,  gold,  silver,  nickel,  and  a  great 
variety  of  the  bronzes,  which  are  valuable  compounds  varying  in 
tenacity  and  hardness  from  the  hardest  steel  to  that  of  soft  copper. 
Most  of  the  above  are  manufactured  into  wire,  sheets,  tubes,  rods, 
etc.,  and  can  in  addition  be  cast  into  any  form  from  a  crucible. 
Copper  can  be  forged  but  not  welded ;  joints  in  it  are  generally 
brazed  or  soldered. 


84       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section    15.  — MATERIALS    OF    CONSTRUCTION 
OTHER    THAN    IRON    AND    STEEL. 

Timber.  Yellow,  white,  and  red  pine  in  logs,  deals,  and  battens ; 
logs  up  to  about  3  ft.  diameter  by  35  to  40  ft.  long  ;  deals,  9  in., 
10  in.,  and  11  in.  wide,  and  from  li  to  4  in.  thick — battens  and 
scantlings  of  all  sizes  smaller  than  deals — a  few  wide  deals  are 
imported  up  to  22  in.  wide.  Spruce  and  fir,  sycamore,  pear-tree, 
willow,  poplar,  etc. 

India-rubber,  manufactured  into  sheets,  with  or  without  canvas 
insertion  of  single,  double,  or  treble  thickness,  up  to  36  in.  wide 
and  to  \  in.  thick  ;  cord  i  to  1  in.  diameter ;  tubes,  plain,  or  with 
canvas  insertion  or  wire  coiled  inside  or  outside,  from  i  to  4  in. 
bore  usually  in  30  and  60  ft.  lengths.  Washers,  rings,  rollers, 
strips,  belts,  and  moulded  articles  of  every  form. 

Gutta-percha  is  manufactured  into  similar  articles. 

Leather.  Most  of  the  varieties  are  manufactured  from  the  skins  of 
oxen,  sheep,  goats,  deer,  horses,  dogs,  hogs,  and  seals,  and  the 
larger  skins  are  divided  into  butts,  shoulders,  cheeks,  and  bellies, 
the  dimensions  depending  of  course  upon  the  size  of  the  animals. 
Ox  hides  are  the  largest  and  kid  skins  the  smallest  in  general  use. 

For  mechanical  purposes  ox  hide,  raw  or  tanned,  is  chiefly  used, 
as  for  valves,  seatings,  belts,  piston  leathers,  etc.  Sheep  skins 
can  be  obtained  either  strained,  half-strained,  or  unstrained ;  the 
first  are  hard  and  comparatively  stiff,  the  last-named  soft  and 
pliable  as  cloth.  Other  soft  varieties  are  goats'  skins  and  chamois 
leather.  There  are  many  imitations  of  leather,  but  they  are  rarely 
employed  in  mechanical  constructions. 

Vulcanized  fibre  is  often  used  for  similar  purposes  to  leather,  as 
for  valves,  seatings,  joints,  etc.  It  is  made  in  two  varieties,  medium 
and  hard,  and  in  sheets  up  to  1  in.  thick. 

Ebonite.  A  hard,  black,  horny  substance,  moulded  into  any  required 
shape. 

Papier  mache.  Solid  paper,  moulded  from  pulp  into  any  required 
form. 


MATERIALS    OF    CONSTRUCTION.  85 

Asbestos,  in  sheets,  cord,  packing  of  various  sections,  loose  fibre, 
millboard,  etc. 

Ivory,  from  tusks  and  teeth. 

Bone. 

Vegetable  ivory  ;  nuts  about  the  size  of  eggs. 

Packings  for  glands,  etc.,  are  made  of  cotton,  hemp,  and  other 
fibres,  asbestos,  india-rubber,  etc.,  in  round,  square,  and  other  sections. 


86       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


Section  16.— RETAINING    WALLS. 

(See  also  Sections  17,  29,  31,  42.) 


1     Retaining  wall  with  cambered  face  and  footing  founded 
on  concrete. 


2     Surcharged  retaining  wall ;  otherwise  as  No.  1. 

8-5     Ditto,  arched  in  plan. 

6     Vertical  retaining  wall  with  counterforts. 

7-8     Plans  of  ditto  with  buttresses  or  counterforts  on  face. 

9     Ditto  with  diagonal  anchor  ties. 


RETAINING    WALLS. 


87 


LJ  I I 


88       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


10  Piles  and  planking  with  anchor  ties. 

11  Piles,   walings,    and  sheet  piling,  with  or  without  anchor 

ties. 

12  Railway  cutting  with  retaining  walls,  strutted  across  by 

cast-iron  or  steel  girder  struts. 

13  Retaining  wall  to  support  upper  strata. 

14  Masonry  bridge  with  wing  retaining  walls. 

15  Plan  of  wing  walls. 

16  Retaining  bank  formed  of  clay  and  fascines,, 

17  Vertical  retaining  wall  with  diagonal  anchor  ties. 


KETAINING    WALLS. 


89 


90       CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


18,  19  Masonry  bridge  to  carry  a  road  over  a  railway.  The  plan 
shows  two  forms  of  splayed  wing  walls  to  support  the 
embankment  of  roadway. 


RETAINING    WALLS. 


91 


92      CIVIL    ENGINEEKING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


Section  17.— RAILWAYS,    EARTHWORKS. 

1  Railway  embankment  on  level  ground. 

2  Ditto,  on  sloping  ground. 

3  Ditto,  ditto,  with  retaining  wall. 

4  Ditto,  ditto,  with  pitched  water-side  slope. 

5  Trenched  toes  to  an  embankment  to  prevent  slipping. 

6  Embankment   founded   on   mattresses   or   fascines   on   a 

peat  base. 

7  Embankment    across    a    mud    bank.     The   embankment 

sinks   into   the   mud   and   raises   it  on  both   sides   until   an 
equilibrium  is  attained. 

8  Embankment  constructed  from  a  "borrow"  pit. 

9  Embankment   supported   by    retaining    walls    on    both 

faces,  with  or  without  cross  tie-rods. 

10  Earth  drains  laid  in  a  bank  in  wet  situations. 

11  Railway  cutting  in  level  ground. 

12  Ditto,  in  inclined  rocky  strata. 

13  Ditto,  in  sloping  ground. 

14  Ditto,  in  level  rock  strata. 

15  Cut  and  cover  cutting  in  rocky  strata. 

16  Ditto,  in  soft  ground,  with  retaining  walls  and  girder  super 

cover. 

17  Cutting  in  ground  with  upper  strata  rock  and  under  strata 

soft.     The  latter  kept  up  by  retaining  walls,  supported  where 
necessary  by  invert  arches. 

18  Cutting  in  sloping  ground  with  surface  catch  drains  above 

the  cutting. 


RAILWAYS. 


93 


94       CIVIL    ENGINEEEING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

19  Cutting  as  cut  and  cover  on  steep  slope  liable  to  landslides 

or  boulders. 

20  Bench  cutting  in  cliff    face.     Soft  strata  are  held  up  by 

a  retaining  wall  and  a  parapet  wall  built  on  outer  edge. 

21  Ditto  with  outer  wall  and  parapet. 

22  Face  tunnel  in  rock  cliff  with  side  openings. 

23  Bench  cutting  and  retaining  wall. 

24  Cutting  with  retaining  wall  to  hold  up  loose  upper  soil. 

25  Retaining  wall  to  support  upper  rock  strata. 

26  Bench  cutting  protected  by  a  snow  shed. 

27  Road  crossing  under  an  embanked  railway.     The  road  to  be 

lowered  to  provide  sufficient  headway. 

28  Benched  out  toes  for  foot  of  an  embankment  of  soft  earth. 

29  Trenches  or  surface  drains  on  the  slope  of  a  cutting,  with 

masonry  foot  drain  to  keep  the  slope  dry. 

80-4     Sections  of  side  drains  for  cuttings. 

35  Embankment  across  a  marsh,  laid  on  mattresses  or  fascines 

with  a  core  of  dry  material. 

36  Embankment  over  ground  subject  to  floods. 


RAILWAYS. 


23 


35 


36 


96       CIVIL    ENGINEEKING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 
Section    18.— RAILWAYS:      PERMANENT    WAY. 

(Tramways,  Permanent  Way,  see  Section  23.) 

1  Single  line  sleeper  road  on  embankment. 

2  Double  head  rails  on  chairs  and  sleepers. 

3  Flanged  rails  spiked  to  sleepers. 

4  Ditto,  on  bearing  plates  spiked  to  sleepers. 
o  Ditto,  on  steel  sleepers. 

6  Ditto,  on  flat  bar  sleepers. 

7  Ditto,  ditto,  turned  up  at  the  ends. 

8  Ditto,  on  longitudinal  sleepers,  with  transverse  timbers  and 

tie  bolts. 

9  Ditto,  on  plates  and  sleepers,  canted  inwards  to  correspond 

with  the  cone  angle  of  the  wheel  tyres. 

10  Double  head  rail  and  guard  rail  in  one  chair. 

11  Flanged  rail  on  a  dished  plate  with  flat  bar  cross  tie. 

12  Wood  guard  rail  to  a  flanged  rail. 
13-16     Rail  spikes  and  bolts. 

17  Flanged    rails    on    plates    and    embedded   stones,    concrete 

blocks,  or  a  longitudinal  concrete  bed. 

18  Street  tramway.     (See  Section  23.) 

19  Sleeper  railway  laid  between  stone  side  walls  and  drains. 

20  Mountain    rack    railway    with    horizontal    rack   and   steel 

sleepers,  usually  anchored  as  No.  23. 


EAILWAYS. 


97 


TWH  T^TTT 


98       CIVIL    ENGINEEKING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

21,  21&  Mountain  rack  railway  with  central  triple  vertical  racks  ; 
steel  sleepers  bolted  down  to  a  masonry  permanent  bed  or 
anchored  as  No.  23. 

22  Street  tramway  for  overhead  trolly  system.    (See  Section  28.) 

23  Mode  of  anchoring  mountain  rack   railway   permanent 

way  to  masonry  bed. 

24  Flanged  rail  and  bearing  plate. 

25  Double  head  rail  on  steel  sleeper  with  steel  chair  and 

wood  key. 

26  Flanged  rail  with  combined  chair  and  fishplate. 

27  Ditto,  with  coach  screw,  spike  or  bolt  fastening  to  wood  sleeper. 

28  Flanged  rail  on  longitudinal  steel  sleeper. 

29  Bridge  rail  on  ditto. 

30  Saddle  rail  on  longitudinal  V  timber  sleeper. 

31  Barlow  rail. 

32  Double  head  rail  with  splayed  sleeper  plates. 

33  Flanged  rail  with  combined  chair  and  fishplate. 

34  Double  head  rail  with  ditto. 

35  Double  head  rail  and  fishplate,  ordinary  section. 


KAILWAYS. 


99 


2\a 


22 


100     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


36  Double  head  rail  in  bent  flat  bar  chair. 

37  Flanged  rail  on  bearing  plate. 

38  Anchorage  for  railway  on  a  steep  incline. 

39  Centre  grip  rail  for  steep  inclines. 

40  Single  line  turnout. 

41  Single  line  double  switch  turnouts. 

42  Double  line  single  turnouts  and  crossings. 

»"  • 

43  Double  line  double  switch  turnouts  and  crossings. 


RAILWAYS. 


101 


37 


39 


4-0 


102     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


44  Cross-over  to  double  line. 

45  Double  cross-over  and  crossings. 

46  Crossings  of  single  lines  with  switches. 

47  Ditto,  without  switches. 

48  Plan  of  switches  to  shed  lines. 

49  Plan  of  cross-over  turnout  on  skew  bridge. 

50  Ditto,  under  main  lines. 


KAILWAYS, 


103 


44 


45 


48 


50 


104     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


51  Road  over  a  bridge. 

52  Ditto,  on  skew. 

53  Level  crossing. 

54  Under  bridge  or  "  cattle  creep  ". 

55  Plan  of  a  double  line  through  station. 

56  Plan  of  a  four  line  through  station  and  goods  sidings. 

57  Plan  of  a  single  line  through  station  and  goods  sidings. 

58  Set  of  turntables  on  four  lines  of  rails  in  a  goods  yard. 

59  Traverser  table  or  transferrer. 

60  Buffer  stop  formed  of  double-headed  rails. 


E  AIL  WAYS. 


105 


106     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


61-3     Buffer  stops. 

64  Turntable. 

65  Section  of  ditto  and  foundation. 

66  Turntable  on  a  hydraulic  pivot. 

67  Traverser  table. 

68  Section  of  ditto. 


In  railway  repair  shops  large  power  traversers  are 
provided  to  move  carriages  under  repair  sideways  from  one  line 
or  workshop  to  another.  These  are  driven  by  electric  motor, 
shafting,  or  hand  winch  gear. 


The  sector  table  is  a  traverser  hinged  to  a  pivot  at  one 
end,  carrying  one  pair  of  rails  wThich  can  be  turned  to  connect 
with  either  of  two  lines  of  rail.  Object :  to  transfer  the  engine 
of  an  arrival  train  to  the  next  line  of  rails  instead  of  employing 
cross-over  rails,  which  require  a  considerable  length  of  line. 


EAILWAYS. 


107 


A A 


67 


IF 


i  r 


iL    68 


108     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section    19.— RAILWAYS:    SIGNALLING,     TELE- 
GRAPHS,   ETC. 

Signals  are  now  invariably  semaphores  by  day  and  lamps  by 
night,  and  these  are  placed  at  elevations  at  which  they  can  be 
seen  by  drivers  at  certain  standard  distances,  all  signal  arms 
for  each  line  pointing  to  the  left.  They  comprise:  Starting 
signals,  generally  at  the  forward  end  of  the  train  platform ; 
home  signals,  placed  near  to  the  rear  end  of  a  station ;  distant 
signals,  placed  about  1,000  yards  behind  the  home  signals 
(these  have  notched  arms)  ;  advanced  starting  signals,  placed 
about  800  yards  in  front  of  the  starting  signal ;  disc  signals, 
for  sidings  and  goods  lines. 

Hand  lamps  with  coloured  movable  glasses,  and  coloured  flags 
are  also  used  for  casual  signalling. 

Signal  cabins  are  placed  close  to  the  station,  and  in  positions  and 
at  elevations  commanding  a  view  of  all  the  signals  and  lines. 
A  range  of  point  and  signal  levers  in  the.  signal  cabin  gives 
the  signalman  control  of  all  the  signals  and  points  of  the  station, 
and  these  are  interlocked  so  that  improper  movements  of  the 
signals  or  points  cannot  be  made. 

The  signal  cabins  are  in  telegraphic  communication  with  the  cabins 
of  other  stations,  from  which  and  to  which  messages  are 
transmitted. 

Signals  are  operated  from  the  cabins  by-  stout  wire  connexions 
running  over  small  grooved  pulleys.  Points  are  operated  by 
stiff  rod  connexions,  either  of  tube  or  channel  iron,  running 
over  small  guide  wheels.  Compensating  levers  are  fixed  in  long 
lines  of  rods  and  wires  to  compensate  for  expansion  and  con- 
traction due  to  temperature. 

Gas,  oil,  or  electric  lighting  is  applied  to  the  signal  lamps. 


RAILWAYS.  109 

In  fogs  detonators  are  used  by  fogmen  placed  where  they  can 
receive  the  cabin  signals ;  also  in  some  cases  the  men  use 
miniature  semaphores  operated  from  the  signal  cabin,  as  well 
as  hand  lamps  and  flags. 

Trains  carry  distinctive  head  and  rear  signals  in  the  form 
of  coloured  plates  by  day  and  at  night  lamps,  to  indicate  the 
destination  of  the  train,  and  every  train  carries  a  white  light  in 
front  and  a  red  one  in  rear  to  warn  other  trains  as  to  its 
position  on  the  line. 

Telephones  are  also  used  for  communication  from  signal  cabins 
to  other  signal  cabins  and  their  stations. 

Telegraphs  connect  all  signal  cabins  with  each  other,  by  which  the 
movements  of  trains  are  telegraphed  ahead,  and  there  are  special 
telegraph  devices  by  which  the  proper  working  of  the  signals  can 
be  confirmed  to  the  signalman  though  he  may  not  be  able  to 
see  the  signals  themselves. 

Other  telegraphic  devices  connect  with  and  in  some  cases 
control  the  working  of  trains  in  goods  yards  and  certain  locking 
devices. 


110     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


Section  20.— RAILWAYS  :    STATIONS. 

Plans  of  stations  are  always  adapted  to  the  site  and  circum- 
stances ;  no  general  plans  can  be  of  any  service.  The  following 
are  details  of  general  interest : — 


1     Section  of  railway  platform  with  stone  coping  and  asphalt 
or  paved  surface. 


2  Ditto,  of  wood  planking  on  a  sleeper  wall. 

3  Ditto,  of  sleepers  edged  with  L  iron. 

4  Ditto,  of  rolled  joists  and  concrete  with  timber  coping. 

5,  6     Low  platforms,  much  used  in  America  and  Europe. 

7  Platform  of  wood  for  a  station  on  an  embankment. 

8  Water  crane. 

9  Type  section  of  a  small  goods  shed. 

10  Ditto  of  a  small  engine  shed  with  inspecting  pit. 


RAILWAYS. 


Ill 


112     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


11     Plan    of    circular    engine    shed   for  eleven   engines   with 
central  turntable. 


12     Plan  of  rectangular  engine  shed  and  turntables. 


13     Repairing  or  inspection  pits  in  engine  houses  and  carriage 
repair  shops. 


14     Hydraulic  lifting  table,  used  in  inspection  pits  for  removing 
and  refixing  axles,  etc. 


15     Hydraulic  or  power  capstan,  used  for  hauling  wagons  and 
carriages  about  sidings. 


EAILWAYS. 


113 


15 


114     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


16  Body  lifting  machine,  used  in  carriage  repair  shops;  consists 
of  four  standards  with  vertical  screws  and  jaws  driven 
simultaneously  by  underground  shafting.  A  similar  machine, 
but  with  overhead  shafting  and  hand-rope  pulley,  is  sometimes 
employed  ;  also  an  overhead  traveller  with  four  lifting  chains. 


17     Snow  or  boulder  shed,   to  protect   a  line  from  avalanches 
or  falling  stones. 


18     Another  form  of  the  last-named. 


19     Under  syphon  to  carry  a  water  or  gas  main  under  a  railway. 


KAIL  WAYS. 


115 


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18 


116     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section  21.— RAILWAYS:    TUNNELS    AND 
CULVERTS. 

(See  also  Section  3.) 

1  Section  of  tunnel  in  hard  rock. 

2  Ditto,  in  rock,  with  arched  head,  the  upper  part  not  being  safe 

to  stand  alone. 

3  Ditto,  where  only  the  lower  strata  are  hard  enough   to   stand 

without  support. 

4  Ditto,  with  the  upper  part  hard  rock  and  side  walls  carried  up  to 

the  rock. 

5  Ditto,  in  soft  soils,  lined  throughout  and  with  invert  arch. 

6  Elliptical  arch  tunnel  for  two  lines  of  rail.     The  above  are 

the  types  generally  in  use,  but  there  are  numerous  variations 
of  these  sections  in  use  in  different  countries. 

7  Double  tunnel  for  two  lines  of  railway  or  two  carriage  roads, 

with  connecting  openings.  Double  tunnels  are,  however, 
generally  driven  separately  in  the  same  way  as  single  ones,  but 
with  connecting  headings  at  intervals. 

8  Iron    tube    tunnel,  circular,  with   large   diameter  section  to 

provide  space  for  a  station  platform,  etc. 

9  Tunnel  or  subway  for  sewers  and  pipe  mains. 

10-15  Sections  showing  mode  of  driving  a  tunnel  in  soft  ground 
by  headings.  This  is  the  ordinary  method  employed,  but  in 
different  strata  several  other  systems  are  in  use. 


EAILWAYS. 


117 


118     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


16,  17     Belgian  and  German  methods  of  tunnel  driving. 

18  Concrete  or  masonry  culvert. 

19  Oval  culvert  in  concrete  or  masonry. 

20  Simple  rough  stone  culvert. 

21  Pipe  culvert,  earthenware  or  concrete. 

22  Arch  and  invert  culvert. 

23  Arch  top  concrete  culvert. 

24  Large  culvert  constructed  as  an  underbridge,  with  wing  walls. 

25  Circular  concrete  culvert. 

26  Section  of  railway  embankment  with  culvert  under. 

27  Tube  tunnel  of  cast  iron  in  sections. 


EAILWAYS. 


119 


120     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section  22.— CARRIAGES  AND  ROLLING  STOCK 
FOR    ROAD    AND    RAIL. 

(See  also  Tramways,   Section  23.) 

The  design  and  details  of  these  must  always  be  suited  to  circum- 
stances. We  only  propose  here  to  indicate  the  various  types  of 
under-framing  and  wheels  in  use,  and  to  give  sketch  sections  of  bodies 
or  cars  for  different  purposes. 

UNDER-FRAMES. 

1     Two-wheel   suspension   car   for   single   rail   or   wire   rope, 
used  commonly  on  some  kinds  of  cranes.     (See  Section  18.) 

2~5     Three-wheel  cars.     See  also  the  various  types  of  tricycles 
in  use. 

6-9     Various  forms  of  four-wheel  under-frames,  with  and 
without  swivelling  bogies. 

A  car  with  four  wheels  arranged  as  No.  9,  but  with  the 
leading  and  trailing  wheels  slightly  raised  off  the  ground,  is 
used  as  a  goods  car  or  hand  truck,  and  is  very  readily  swivelled 
about,  running,  of  course,  actually  on  three  wheels  only. 

10     Five- wheel  under-frame,  with  and  without  swivelling  bogies. 

11,  12  Plans  of  six-wheel  cars,  with  swivelling  gear  for  curves  ; 
the  centre  pair  having  end  play,  swivel  the  leading  and  trailing 
axles  by  means  of  the  jointed  stays. 

13     Plan  of  four-wheel  car,  with  swivelling  gear  for  curves. 

14~16  Six- wheel  cars,  the  latter  with  leading  and  trailing 
swivelling  bogies. 


CAEEIAGES   AND   ROLLING   STOCK.  121 


15 


16 


122     CIVIL    ENGINEEKING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES, 


17     Ten-wheel  truck,  with  two  bogies  and  sliding  middle  axle. 


18     Twelve-wheel  ditto,  with  three  bogies,  the  centre  one  to  have 
transverse  movement  on  curves. 


19~28     Sections  of  cars  for  railways  and  tramways,  with  various 
arrangements  of  seating,  etc. 


29,  30     Hopper  wagons. 

31  Side  tip  car. 

32  End  tip  cart. 

33  End  tip  wagon. 


CARRIAGES   AND   ROLLING   STOCK.  123 


17 


20 


it; 


18 


30 


23 


28 


2.7 

I 


31 


21 


25 


29 


33 


124     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


34  Furniture  wagon. 

0 

35  Grafton's  patent  side  tip  wagon. 

36  Long  truck  for  boilers,  etc. 

37  Incline  car  for  passengers. 


38     Segmental  swivelling  bearings,  used  instead  of  a  swivelling 
bogie  and  centre-pin. 


39  Hudson's  patent  tip  wagons,  with  three  centres. 

40  Hopper  wagon,  with  central  discharge. 

41  Swivelling  gear  for  car  wheels. 


CARRIAGES   AND   ROLLING   STOCK.  125 


34- 


35 


37 


36 


39 

I 


00 


126     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


35     Equalizing  buffers  and  springs. 


36-8     Hopper  bottom  wagons  for  20  to  40  tons  loads  on  double 
bogie  trucks. 


I,  40     Cross  sections  of  two  types  of  hopper  bottom  wagons. 


41     Double  axles  to  allow  of  independent  running  of  the  inner 
and  outer  wheels  around  curves. 


42  Divided  axle  for  same  purpose  as  No.  41. 

43  Expanding  (leather)  vestibule  to  railway  vestibule  cars. 

44  Close  buffers  for  made-up  trains. 


CARRIAGES   AND   ROLLING   STOCK.  127 


37 


rye; 


4.4- 


43 


128     CIVIL    ENGINEEKING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 
Section  23.— TRAMWAYS. 

1  Tramway    permanent    way,  with   transverse   flat   bar   ties. 

(See  No.  512.) 

2  Permanent  way,  with  rails  laid  on  longitudinal  concrete  beds. 

3  Ditto,  with  connected  concrete  beds  and  wood,  brick,  or  granite 

cube  paving. 

4  As  last  described,  but  with  rails  resting  on  cast-iron  chairs 

embedded  in  the  concrete  base. 

5  Sleeper  line  embedded  in  concrete. 

6  Steel    rope    conduit  line,   with   central   conduit   formed   in 

a  concrete  bed  and  steel  frames  to  support  and  connect  the 
rails  and  the  central  plough  slot. 

7  Electric  conduit  line,  with  steel  tube  conduit  and  conductor 

bars. 

8  Arrangement  of  the  rope  pulleys  on  a  curve. 

9  American  section  of  top  flange  rail. 

10  Saddle  rail. 

11  Plan  of  tramway  switch. 

12  Plan  of  tramway  crossing. 

13,  14     End  views  of  electric  railway  cars  for  both  side  and  central 
current  conductors. 


TRAMWAYS. 


129 


mi  i  l  I 


10 


u /& ci 


i  1 1 1 


12 


130     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


15-17     Tramway  turnouts  on  single  lines. 


18     Electric  railway  side  conductor  rail  with  wood  protection, 
showing  current  collector  on  the  carriage  under-frame. 


19     Another  form  of  protected  conductor  rail  with  under  contact. 


20-1  Overhead  trolly  wires  and  standards  for  single  and  double 
lines.  For  double  lines  single  standards  are  sometimes  used 
fixed  between  the  lines  in  the  6  ft.  way,  with  two  trolly  arms. 


22     Three  wire  catenary  electric  trolly  conductor  for  over- 
head electric  railway. 


23     Cross  section  of  ditto. 


24-7     Varieties  of  trolly  arms. 


TRAMWAYS. 


131 


17 


19 


132     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


28     Plan  of  overhead  wiring  at  a  four  street  tramway  junction. 


29     Ditto,  at  a  street  corner. 


30     Open  side  tramcar  on  short  wheel  base  truck. 


31     Closed  tramcar  on   radial  three  axle  long  wheel  base  truck 
(Barber's  patent). 


32     Long  tramcar  on  double  bogie  truck. 


TRAMWAYS. 


133 


28 


29 


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32 


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134     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 
Section  24.— CANALS  ;    AQUEDUCTS. 

1,  2     Canal  bank  with  clay  puddle  lining  and  earth  filling. 

3  Ditto,  with  vertical  puddle  trench. 

4  Canal  cut  on  sloping  ground,  the  outer  bank  pitched  with 

concrete,  stone,  or  a  clay  slope. 

5  Canal  lined  wholly  with  impervious  stone  or  other  material. 

6  Canal  cut  in  soft  ground  with  clay  puddle  trenches  on  each 

bank,  carried  down  to  the  clay  or  other  impervious  strata 
below. 

7  Canal  on  a  bench  in  rock,  with  outer  masonry  wall. 

8  Canal  with  masonry  walls  on  both  banks. 

9  Semicircular     iron     canal     or    aqueduct    in    concrete    or 

earth  bank. 

10  Aqueduct  in  concrete. 

11  Circular  masonry  aqueduct  on  concrete  base. 

12  Circular     concrete    aqueduct    or    drain    in    an    earthen 

embankment. 

13  Canal  tunnel  with  masonry  lining  and  towing-path. 

14  Circular  canal  tunnel. 

15,  16,  18-21     Methods     of     protecting     canal    banks    from 
erosion. 

17     Boat  incline  at  side  of  a  canal  lock. 


CANALS. 


135 


136     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


22     Canal  overflow  used  to  drive  a  water-wheel. 


23     Canal  or  aqueduct  carried  on  a  girder  bridge  with  concrete 
lining. 


24  Masonry  arched  aqueduct. 

25  Series  of  canal  locks,  longitudinal  section. 

26  Canal  tunnelled  in  rock  with  towing-path. 

27  Plan  of  lock  and  stepped  or  terraced  weirs  for  overflow. 

28  Canal  dredger  with  discharge  shoots  on  both  banks. 


29     Canal    grab    dredger    machine    travelling   on    rails   on   a 
canal  bank. 


CANALS. 


137 


29 


138     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


30     Canal  or  river  dredger  with  discharge  conveyor  shoot. 


31  Canal  lift,  consisting  of  three  (or  more)  hydraulic  cylinders  in 
wells  carrying  a  barge  float  provided  with  water  gates  at 
each  end. 


32  Canal  lift  of  five  pneumatic  cylinders  in  wells ;  the  cylinders 
are  raised  by  filling  the  wells  with  water,  and  lowered  by 
running  off  the  water  from  the  wells. 


Other  forms  of  canal  lift  comprise  incline  lifts,  in  which 
the  barge  float  is  carried  up  the  incline  by  rope  or  hydraulic 
haulage,  or  two  barge  floats  are  employed  on  the  principle  of 
the  water  balance  lift. 


33,  34     Masonry  arched  aqueduct  or  canal. 

Water  supply  to  a  canal  is  obtained  either  from  springs, 
a  river,  stream,  or  lake,  or  is  obtained  by  pumping  from  a  river 
or  from  wells. 


CANALS. 


139 


32 


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140     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section  25.— HEATING    AND    VENTILATION. 

1  Dutch  cylindrical  close  stove. 

2  Close  stove  used  in  North  of  Europe.    Also  made  in  cylindrical 

form  ornamented  with  tiles,  etc. 

3  Heating  system  by  hot  water  boiler,  circulating  pipes,  and 

radiators.     Steam  is  also  similarly  used  instead  of  hot  water. 
Gas  radiators  are  filled  with  water  and  heated  by  Bunsen  jets. 

4  Hot  air  furnace  for  a  large  building.     The  air  is  heated  by 

circulating  around  the  hot  smoke  flues. 

5  Hot  water  system  by  circulation  through  pipes  carried  round 

rooms,  passages,  etc. 

6  Ventilating  skylight. 

7  Ventilating  Louvre  roof. 

8  Circular  slotted  glass  ventilator. 
9,  10    Ventilating  sash. 

11  French  windows. 

12  Pedestal  central  heating  stove.     The  flue  is  carried  down 

and  under  the  floor. 

13  Ordinary  double  sashes. 

14  Ventilating  a  room  by  a  pilaster   inlet   pipe  taking  its  air 

from  outside  and  an  upper  flap  opening  into  a  flue  or  the 
open  air. 


HEATING  AND   VENTILATION. 


141 


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142     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

15  Ventilating  fan.     Usually  driven  by  a  small  electric  motor. 

16  Open  grate  and  flue  with  air  inlet  from  outside  the  building. 

17  Ventilating   shaft  to  which  flues  are  taken  from  the  upper 

part  of  any  number  of  apartments. 

18  Chandelier  ventilation  for  a  large  hall. 

19  Ventilating  flue  and  flap  valve. 
£0     External  air  inlet  to  a  room. 

21  Ventilating  collectors  and  flues  between  floor  and  ceiling. 

22  Slot  and  slide  ventilator. 

23  Series   of   frieze   flap   ventilators   for   carriages,   operated 

by  a  rod. 

24  Gas   heating   close   cylinder   stove   and  hot  air  flues  led 

into  the  open  air. 
Horizontal  flues  are  sometimes  carried  round  a  room  behind 

the  skirting  with  gratings  at  intervals  to  supply  hot  air  or  fresh 

cold  air. 
Electric  stoves  and  heaters,  usually  by  large  incandescent 

lamps  and  reflectors. 
Anthracite  slow  combustion  close  stoves  are  much  used 

for  apartment  or  central  heating,  one  charge  of  coal  usually 

lasting  twenty-four  hours. 
Mining  ventilation  is  either  by  upcast  shaft  and  furnace,  in 

conjunction  with  doors  placed  in  the  headings  to  direct  the  air 

current ;  or  by  large  fans  driven  by  an  engine  or  electric  motor. 
Railway    carriages    are    heated    by   steam   radiators   placed 

beneath  the  seats,   or  by  hot  water  bottles.     The  steam  is 

supplied  from  the  locomotive. 
Gas  heating  by  gas  stoves — open  or  close — or  by  gas  radiators, 

similar  to  No.  3. 
Steam  heating  by  supply  pipes  and  radiators  similar  to  No.  3, 

the  condensed  water  being  run  off  by  a  return  pipe. 
Steam  ovens  of  sheet-iron  in  box  form,  having  a  steam  space 

all  round  into  which  live  steam  is  admitted,  and  from  which 

the  condensed  water  is  drained  off  by  a  tap. 
Geysers  are  gas  Bunsen  burners  enclosed  in  a  case,  with  water- 
spray  circulated  through  the  hot  gases. 


HEATING  AND   VENTILATION. 


143 


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16 


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144     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


Section  26.— PLATE    WORK. 
1     Single  riveted  lap  joint. 
2.    Double  riveted  lap  joint. 

3  Single  riveted  butt  joint. 

4  Double  butt  joint. 

5  T-iron  butt  joint. 

6-9     Angle  or  edge  seams. 
10     Transverse  tubular  seam. 
11, 12     Reducing  ring  seams. 


PLATE    WORK. 


145 


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12 


146     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

13     Reducing  ring  seam. 

14-17     Bottom  seams  round  water  spaces,  fire-boxes,  etc. 

18     Expansion  hoop  joint  in  boiler  flues,  etc. 

19,  20     Fire-box  stays. 

21     Gusset  stay  for  flat  ends. 

Flat  bar,  tube,  and  round  iron  stays  are  also  much  used  to 
stay  flat  surfaces  in  boilers  and  tanks. 

In  household  boilers  it  is  usual  to  weld  all  the  seams,  thus 
avoiding  L  iron  and  other  riveted  work. 

Flue  tubes  in  boilers  are  stayed  also  by  cross  tubes  inserted 
at  intervals,  such  as  Galloway's  patent  conical  cross  tubes. 

22-3     Cover  plates  to  carry  tensile  strains  over  joints  in  plates, 
L  irons,  etc. 

24-8     Various  forms  of   joints  employed,   etc.,  not   subject   to 
much  strain. 

29  Junction  of  L  or  T  iron  and  plate. 

30  Gusset  junction  for  L  or  T  iron  and  tie  bars. 

31  Mode  of  joining  laps  of  four  plates  at  corner  in  boiler  work. 

32  Junction  of  flat  bar  and  L  or  T  iron. 

33  Dished  plate  seam. 

34-40     Seams  employed  for  sheet  metal  work. 


PLATE    WORK. 


147 


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148     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


41 
42 
43 
44 
45 


Bottom  seams :  No.  44  is  strengthened  by  a  thick  wire  ring. 


46-7     Intermediate  seams,  or  diaphragms. 

48  Elbow  seam. 

49  Folded  pipe  seam. 

i 

PLATE  AND   BAR    JOINTS. 

50  Junction  of  T  iron,  plate  and  T  or  L  iron  verticals. 

51  Gusset  plate  corner  stiffener. 

52  Plate  end  for  a  tie-rod. 

53  H  iron  junction,  as  in  a  floor  framing. 

54  Gusset  plate  junction  for  a  braced  framing. 

55  Gusset  plate  junction  for  H  girders  of  equal  depths. 

56  Plate  edge  joint.     The  circular  cover  is  rolled  (hot  or  cold) 

down  over  the  thickened  edges  of  plates. 

(See  also  Sections  5,  6,  10,  14.) 


PLATE    WOKK. 


149 


J   -    I,  J  **    L 


150     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


Section  27.— GAS   SUPPLY. 

1  Type  section  of  a  gas  house  showing  general  arrangement 
of  retort  bench,  elevators,  drawing  and  charging  machine, 
hydraulic  mains,  etc.  The  gas  is  further  conveyed  through 
a  condenser  and  purifiers  to  the  gasometer.  There  are  many 
varieties  of  this  type. 


2  Ordinary  type  of  gasometer,  consisting  of  a  cylindrical 
plate-iron  domed  vessel,  the  lower  part  of  which  dips  into  an 
annular  water  space.  The  gasometer  is  guided  by  rollers 
bearing  against  vertical  rails  attached  to  iron  columns,  which 
are  braced  together.  The  weight  of  the  gasometer  is  adjusted 
to  give  the  standard  pressure  of  gas  required  in  the  mains. 


3-6     Sections  of  gas  retorts  of  fireclay. 


7     Longitudinal  section  of  a  gas  retort  with  iron  front  and 
cover. 


Oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  other  gases  are  compressed  into 
steel  bottles  (see  Section  34)  and  used  for  lighting  and  other 
purposes,  usual  pressure  1,200  Ib.  per  square  inch. 


"  Mond  "  gas,  water  gas,  acetylene  gas,  and  several  varieties 
of  petroleum  spirit  and  other  gases  are  manufactured  and 
employed  for  heating,  lighting,  and  gas-engine  driving. 


GAS     SUPPLY. 


151 


152     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section  28.— HYDRAULICS. 

1  Water-lifting  wheel  for  irrigation. 

2  Water-lifting  lever  trough  for  irrigation. 
8     Water  chain-bucket  lift. 

4  Archimedian  screw  water  lifts. 

5  Chain  pump. 

6  Water-lifting  wheel. 

7  Self-acting  water  pressure  pump.     The  movement  of  the 

piston  reverses  the  inlet  pressure  valve. 

8  Ditto. 

9  Hydraulic  ram. 

10     Water  wheel  and  pump. 
11-15     Types  of  vertical  pumping  engines. 
16-18     Types  of  horizontal  pumping  engines. 
.  Hydraulic  accumulator.     (See  Section  44.) 
Water  supply.     (See  Section  44.) 


HYDRAULICS. 


153 


154     CIVII,    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


19-21     Horizontal  compound  pumping  engines. 
22-3     Horizontal  pumping  engines. 

24  Vertical  parallel  movement  mine  pump  compound. 

25  Turbine. 

26  Jet  wheels. 

27  Pelton  wheel. 

28  Plan  of  turbine  bucket. 

29  Tide  wheel  on  a  float. 

30  Undershot  jet  wheel. 

31  Tide  screw  motor  wheel. 

32  Water  motor  with  variable  gate. 


HYDRAULICS. 


155 


156     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

33  Breast  wheel. 

34  Overshot  wheel. 

35  Ditto,  reverse  flow. 

36  Internal  bucket  undershot  wheel. 

37  Submerged  air  motor  wheel. 

38  Diagonal  wheel. 

39  Tide  wheel. 

40  Flutter  wheel :   high  fall. 

41  Horizontal  wheel. 

42  Internal  breast  wheel. 

43  Reaction  jet  wheel. 

44  Undershot  wheel. 

45-8     Various     forms     of     plain     and     ventilated     wheel 
buckets. 

49     Plan  of  turbine. 
50-1     Turbines. 


HYDRAULICS. 


157 


158     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES 


52-4     Sections    of    water    flumes  to  convey  streams  to  water 
wheels  or  turbines. 


55     Flume  on  staging  with  down  shoot  or  pipe  to  a  turbine. 


56     Pipe  main  for  pressure  water  to  a  wheel,  turbine,  or  other 
motor. 


57     Hydraulic  timber  shoot  to  convey  logs  to  a  river  or  lake. 


HYDBAULICS. 


159 


52 


53 


54- 


I  I 


160     CIVIL    ENGINEEKING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section  29.— SEA    AND    RIVER    STRUCTURES. 

(See  also  Sections  81,  32.) 


1     Sections    of   flood    banks    or   river  walls  to  prevent  flood 
overflows. 


2     Training  groynes  placed  on  river  banks  to  confine  the  main 
stream  and  assist  scour. 


3  Bottom  groynes  or  walls  for  a  similar  purpose. 

4  Section  of  training  bank  or  groyne. 

5  Floating  booms  placed  to  direct  the  main  stream. 

6  Training  banks  to  confine  a  main  stream. 

7  Plan  of  a  curved  training  bank. 

8-9     Arrangements  of  training  banks  in  a  river  or  estuary 
to  direct  the  stream  and  assist  scour. 


10     River  wall  with  pitched  slope,  puddle  trench,  and  inner 
surface  drain  and  outfall  sluice. 


11-13     Sections  of  upright  walls  as  protective  works. 
14     Rough  stone  foreshore  wall. 


SEA  AND  EIVER  STRUCTURES.  161 


162     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

15  River  training  bank. 

16  Ditto  for  reclamation  of  bay  or  creek. 


17     Plan   of    groynes    on   a   foreshore,    timber,  masonry  (or 
concrete),  also  pipe  drain  groyne. 


18-21     Foreshore    protective     works     of    masonry     pitching, 
timber,  or  rubble  stone. 


22     Section  of  timber  groyne  with  old  rail  struts  and  concrete 
foundation  blocks. 


23  Curved  river  or  sea  wall  in  masonry  or  concrete. 

i 

24  Breakwater  with  parapet. 

25  Wharf  wall  with  timber  jetty. 

26  Concrete  block  breakwater  on  rubble  base. 

27  Ditto  with  sloping  blocks. 

28  Concrete  block  and  rubble  breakwater. 


SEA  AND  RIVER  STRUCTURES. 


163 


164     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

29  Pitched  slope  and  block  toe  breakwater. 

30  Concrete  block  breakwater  on  rubble  mound,  with  mass 

concrete  parapet. 

31-3     Foreshore  protective  banks  and  works. 


34     Foreshore  protected   by  sedge  or  reeds,  mattresses,  piles, 
ballast  or  rubble  stones. 


35  River  wall  terraced  and  pitched. 

36  Ditto  with  concrete  slope  and  quay  and  piled  footing. 

37  Ditto  with  concrete  slope  and  footing. 

38  Ditto  of  concrete  faced  with  stone. 

39  Ditto  of  concrete  with  stone  facing. 


,40     Ditto  of  rubble  stone  and  cribwork  backed   by  clay  wall 
and  sand  piling. 

41     River  foreshore  protected  by  fascine  mats  floated  into  position 
and  sunk  with  stone  or  clay  loading. 


42-4     Timber  and  rubble  groyne.    Section  elevation  and  plan. 


SEA  AND  RIVER  STRUCTURES 


165 


38 


166     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

45  Groyne  constructed  of  piles,  stakes,  and  rubble  stones. 

46  Foreshore  wall  of  fascines  and  stones,  with  stakes. 

47  Ditto  of  stakes  and  wattles. 

48  Timber  and  rubble  cribwork,  with  planked  face. 

49  Concrete  block  breakwater  on  a  nibble  mound. 

50  Terraced  breakwater  of  rubble  with  pitched  slopes. 

51  Concrete   block  breakwater    filled  with   rubble   and   with 

rubble  toe. 

52  Sea  wall  of  concrete  with  masonry  top  section. 

53  Masonry  sea  walls. 

54  Sheet  pile  river  wall. 

55  Mass  concrete  breakwater  laid  in  boxing  with  fender  piles. 

56  Breakwater  constructed  of  fascines  and  stone  footing,  clay  and 

sand  filling,  and  concrete  or  masonry  upper  section. 

57  Block  concrete  breakwater  with  loose  block  toe. 
58-61     Sections  of  sea  or  river  walls. 


SEA  AND  RIVER  STRUCTURES. 


167 


168     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

62  Breakwater  formed  of  a  concrete  box  base  with   superstructure 

of  concrete  blocks  and  mass  concrete   top   with  subway  and 
parapet. 

63  Concrete  breakwater  built  on  a  timber  cribwork  base. 

64  Concrete  block  breakwater  on  a  mass  concrete  base. 

65-6     Reinforced    concrete    box    breakwater    on    a    rubble 
base,  finished  with  mass  concrete  upper  section. 

67  Circular    concrete    fort,    built    as    a   caisson   and   sunk   in 

position  on  levelled  foundation. 

68  Cribwork  base  for  wall  or  breakwater. 

19     Coffer-dam,  formed  of  three  rows  of  close  piling  filled  with 
rammed  clay. 

70  Timber  jetty  on  a  river  wall  with  stone  pitching. 

71  Masonry  sea  wall. 

72  Foreshore  protection  of  stakes  and  stones. 

73-4     Sea  wall  of  concrete  caissons,  keyed  together,  carrying 
a  superstructure  of  mass  concrete. 

75     Sea  wall    on   concrete    caissons    sunk   by  water    pressure 
pipe  and  sand  pump,  superstructure  of  masonry. 


SEA  AND  RIVER  STRUCTURES. 


169 


170     CIVIL    ENGINEEEING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

A 

76  Wharf  wall   built  forward  into  a  river  on  a  pile  foundation. 

77  Cast-iron  pile  and  panel  sheet  piling  for  a  river  wall. 

78  Oval  caisson  and  key,  sheet  piling. 

79-81     Sections  of  interlocked  steel  sheet  piling. 
82-5     Sections  of  piers  or  jetties. 

86  Type  plan  of  a  sea  pleasure  pier  with  pavilions. 

87  Timber  jetty. 

88  River   floating  pier  with  bowstring  girder  connecting  stage. 


89-90  Long  tidal  incline  on  floats  or  dumb  lighters.  The 
incline  is  in  section  maintained  at  any  angle  by  side  levers 
with  varying  leverage. 


91  Breakwater  or  training  wall  faced  with  pitched  stonework. 

92  Cantilever  jetty  to  project  to  a  deep  water  berth. 


3EA  AND  RIVER  STRUCTURES. 


171 


89 


172     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


93     Light  or  bell  buoy. 

94-101     Sections  and  elevations  of  various  types  of  wharf  walls. 

102  Concrete  wharf  wall  faced  with  stone. 

103  Rubble  stone  mound  breakwater  or  training  bank. 
104-5     Breakwaters  on  rubble  base. 

106     Breakwaters  at  entrance  to  a  river. 

107-8     Section  of  coal-shoot  jetty  for  loading  barges,  etc. 

109-10     Steel  sheet  pile  wharf  walls. 


SEA  AND   RIVER  STRUCTURES. 


173 


174     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


Section  30.— IRRIGATION. 

The    artificial    supply    of    water    to    crops   in   places   where  the 
rainfall  is  either  insufficient  or  unseasonable. 


SOURCES    OF    SUPPLY. 

Rainfall  :  The  run  off  being  collected  in  reservoirs,  or  led  by  canals 
to  dry  areas.  Eain- water  is  superior  to  that  from  wells. 

Springs  :  Led  to  reservoirs,  or  irrigation  canals,  or  channels. 

Wells  :  These  generally  require  pumping  or  some  equivalent  water- 
raising  machinery. 

Artesian  wells :  The  water  is  directed  into  canals  or  storage 
reservoirs. 

Streams  :  From  mountains  or  hills,  dammed  at  suitable  points,  and 
led  to  irrigation  canals  or  channels. 

Rivers:  Usually  require  dams  or  weirs  (Section  43)  to  raise  the 
water  to  a  sufficient  head  to  supply  low-lying  areas  by  canals. 
Sometimes  the  water  is  pumped  up  to  a  sufficient  head. 

Lakes  :  Fed  by  streams  from  elevated  catchment  areas  are  natural 
irrigation  reservoirs.  Their  level  is  often  raised  by  a  dam  to 
augment  the  storage  and  give  a  greater  head  of  supply. 

Artificial  reservoirs  :  Generally  constructed  by  throwing  a  dam 
across  a  valley  (Section  44)  in  which  a  stream  or  river  runs  down 
from  high  ground. 


IRRIGATION.  175 

DISTRIBUTION. 

Canals  :  Fitted  with  sluices  to  regulate  the  flow  (Section  24). 
Branch  canals  :  Smaller  in  cross  section. 

Distributaries  and  field  channels. 

All  these  are  laid  with  a  slight  fall  calculated  to  give  the 
required  maximum  flow  ;  and  the  flow  is  controlled  by  simple 
gates  or  sluices. 

Aqueducts  (Section  24). 


176     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


Section  31.— DOCKS,    HARBOURS. 

(See  also  Sections  29,  39.) 

1-6  The  plan  of  a  harbour  is  always  dependent  on  the  form 
and  character  of  the  coastline,  the  depths  of  water,  tides, 
tidal  range,  and  prevailing  winds,  as  also  the  tonnage  and 
other  characteristics  of  the  shipping.  No  general  rules  are 
possible,  so  that  the  plans  sketched  merely  indicate  general 
outlines  of  breakwaters  adopted  for  varying  coast  outlines. 


Sluicing  basin  on  a  tidal  coast  at  entrance  to  a  dock  or  harbour, 
filled  at  high  water  and  used  at  low  water  to  scour  the  approach 
to  the  locks. 


Type  plan  of  a  dock  with  outer  tidal  harbour  and  inner 
basins  and  locks.  Most  docks  are  variations  of  this  type 
adapted  to  the  local  conditions. 


DOCKS,    HARBOURS. 


177 


178     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


9-11     Type  plans  of  locks    with  cylinder,  swing,  and    sliding 
gates.     No.  10  is  the  common  form. 


12     Pair  of  locks  opening  direct  into  a  river,  with  concrete  apron 
outside  and  scouring  culverts,  gates,  and  sluices  to  keep  the 
.    approach  to  the  locks  clear  of  silt. 


13  Section  of  floating  dock.  Consists  of  a  rectangular  water- 
tight steel  base,  capable  of  carrying  the  heaviest  vessel  to  be 
dealt  with,  and  side  framings  on  each  side  containing  work- 
shops, platforms,  cranes,  and  other  repairing  plant. 


14     Floating  dock  as  last,  but  with  one  side  framing  only. 


15-18     Sections  of  harbour  piers  or  jetties  in  timber  and  stone 
work. 


19-21     Horizontal  sections  of  lock  gates  in  wood  and  steel. 


DOCKS,    HARBOURS. 


179 


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180     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


22-3  Type  plan  of  repairing  slips  and  graving  dock,  showing 
three  slips  branching  from  a  floating  dock,  opening  into  a  river 
or  harbour. 


24-7  Block  plans  of  types  of  river  jetties  ;  26  and  27  contain 
barge  docks  to  provide  berths  for  barges  receiving  goods  direct 
from  ship  or  jetty. 


28     Another  plan  of  double  jetty  with  stepped  berths  on  the 
inner  sides. 


29     Plan  of  pair  of  locks  with  sluicing  openings,  culvert,  and 
sluice  gate. 


30  Lock  caisson,  used  in  place  of  gates  and  floated  into  position. 

31  Balanced  swing  landing-stage. 


DOCKS,    HARBOURS. 


181 


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182     CIVII.    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section  32.— LIGHTHOUSES,    BUOYS,   BEACONS, 
MOORINGS. 

1-6  Various  forms  of  buoys,  with  and  without  cages  or  bells, 
used  to  mark  channels  or  sunken  rocks  or  shoals,  and  their 
form  and  colour  varied  to  indicate  their  purpose. 

7~10  Beacons  for  similar  purposes,  usually  fitted  with  screws  and 
screwed  into  the  sea  bottom.  (See  also  Section  30.) 

11  Lighthouse  of  tower  form  of  cast-iron  plates,  with  gallery 

and  lantern  on  stone  or  concrete  base.  The  light-rooms,  stores, 
and  lightkeepers'  rooms  are  all  in  the  interior  with  a  spiral 
stair  to  the  lantern. 

12  Screw  pile    sea    lighthouse  with  upper  platform  carrying 

the  stores,  and  living-rooms.  This  type  is  often  fixed  to  rock 
foundation  by  special  rock-boring  screws. 

13  Masonry  lighthouse  of  the  Eddystone  type,  built  on  a  rock 

which  is  exposed  at  low  water.  All  the  stores  and  living- 
rooms  are  in  the  interior  of  the  tower.  The  masonry  is 
usually  toggled  or  dovetailed  together. 

14  Masonry  lighthouse  for  a  headland  or  elevated  position  with 

short  tower,  gallery,  and  lantern.  The  stores  and  dwellings 
are  in  the  adjoining  building. 

15  Cylindrical  caisson  foundation  for  a  lighthouse  as  No.  30. 

The  caisson  is  filled  with  concrete  and  may  be  protected  by 
a  mound  of  rubble. 

16  Screw  pile  lighthouse  for  a  shoal  or  sunk  rock,  with  large 

platform  and  iron  building  containing  the  stores  and  dwellings. 


LIGHTHOUSES,    BUOYS,    ETC. 


183 


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184     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


Section  33.— DISPOSAL    OF    REFUSE,    ETC. 

Town  refuse  :    Is   ordinarily   conveyed   by   collecting   vehicles  to 
municipal  destructors  and  burned. 

Destructors  are  of  two  classes — 

1.  Low   temperature   furnaces  ;      the   products    of    combustion 

escaping  into  the  atmosphere. 

2.  High  temperature ;   the  hot  gases  being  utilized  to  generate 

steam  in  boilers,  the  power  being  applied  to  municipal 
services,  as  electricity  production,  pumping  sewage  or 
water,  gasworks  power,  etc. 

The    remaining    clinker    and    ash    are   used   for   road-making, 
concrete  and  mortar  mixing. 

Tipping    refuse    on    land  :    Usually  on  low  land  which  needs 
raising  or  levelling  and  not  too  near  to  dwellings. 


As    manure  :    The   refuse   is   seldom   of   a   quality    suitable    for 
manuring,  although  much  of  it  is  so  used. 


Street  sweepings  are,  however,  good  and  valuable  as  manure. 


Trades  wastes   from   paper   mills,   bleach   works,   wool   cleaning, 
chemical  works,  tanners  and  leather  works,  bleachers  and  dyers,  etc. 

The  wastes  are  treated  :  1,  chemically  to  recover  useful  con- 
stituents, or  combine  them  into  saleable  substances.  2,  by  pre- 
cipitation in  tanks  or  reservoirs.  The  liquor  is  chemically  or 


DISPOSAL    OF    REFUSE,  ETC.  185 


bacterially  treated  to  form  an  innocuous  effluent,  and  discharged  into 
a  stream  or  sewer.  The  sludge  is  treated  chemically  or  dried  for 
use  as  a  manure,  and  in  most  cases  considerable  quantities  of 
valuable  by-products  are  obtained  from  both  the  liquors  and  the 
precipitates. 

Drainage  (see  Section  3)  carries  away  a  very  large  proportion  of 
town  and  domestic  refuse  from  streets,  house  drains,  roofs,  open 
yards,  closets,  and  sinks. 


s(i     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section  34.— TANKS    AND    CONTAINERS. 
1     Railway  water  crane  and  tank. 
2-6     Plans  of  cast-iron  or  steel  tanks  of  various  forms. 

7  Tubular  heating  tank. 

8  Square  wrought-iron  tank. 

9  Circular  cast-iron  tank. 


10     Evaporating  or  heating  tank,  containing  numerous  sloping 
shelves. 


11  Similar  tank,  vertically  arranged. 

12  Similar  tank  with  diagonal  shelves  or  diaphragms. 

13  Saddle  tank. 

14  Hot- water  tank. 


15     Steel  gas  bottle  for  high  pressure. 

(See  also  Section  44.) 


TANKS    AND    CONTAINERS, 


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188     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section  35.— MINES    AND    WELLS. 
Ventilating  mines.     (See  Section  25.) 

1  Plan  of  circular  mine  shaft.     There  are  usually  six  cage 

guide  timbers  framed  together,  also  pump  rods,  rising  main, 
and  pipes  for  compressed  air,  etc. 

2  Plan  of  elliptical  mine  shaft  with  similar  fittings. 

3  Mode   of   sinking    shafts    or    wells    by  cast-iron  or  steel 

cylinders,  sometimes  lined  internally  with  brickwork  and 
loaded  to  assist  sinking.  The  soil  and  water  are  removed  from 
the  interior  by  hoisting  and  pumping.  (See  Section  1.) 

4  Well  sinking  by  cylindrical  brick  cylinder.     The  lower  section, 

penetrating  water-bearing  strata,  is  built  with  holes  or  in  dry 
brickwork.  The  cylinder  is  loaded  to  assist  sinking. 

5  Well  sinking  by  cast-iron  or  steel  cylinder. 

6  Brick-lined  well  in  soft  ground  continued  down  into  rock  or 

hard  strata  without  a  lining. 

7  Mode  of  timbering  a  shaft  for  sinking  in  soft  strata. 

8  Another  method,  permitting  the  top  diameter  to  be  maintained 

throughout. 

9  Coal  or  mineral  washer. 

10     Ditto,  and  separator. 

Tube  wells,  put  down  singly  or  in  groups  or  series,  are  tubes 
with  the  lower  lengths  perforated  and  driven  down  to  water- 
bearing strata.  An  internal  suction  pipe  is  used  for  pumping, 
and  several  wells  may  be  connected  to  one  pump. 


MINES,    WELLS. 


189 


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£. 


190     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


11     Mine-cage  governing  gear  to  control  speed  of  cage. 


12     Cage   safety  gear ;  kept   out   of   action  by  the  pull  of  the 
hoisting  rope. 


18     Another  method. 

14     Cage  safety  hook,  detaches  the  cage  if  drawn  too  high. 

15-16     Cage  indicators  for  winding  engines. 

17     Section  of  cage  rope  pulley. 

18-19     Cage  safety  gears,  as  No.  12. 

20-1     Horizontal  winding  engines. 


MINES,    WELLS. 


191 


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192     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section  36.— FENCING. 

1  The  common  sod  hedge. 

2  Thickset  hedge. 

3-4:     American  rail  fence,  laid  zigzag. 

Tree  stumps  and  roots  are  also  placed  close  together  to  form 
a  rough  fence. 

•5     Split  post  and  wire  fence.    The  uprights  are  woven  in  with 
the  wires,  so  that  the  fence  can  be  rolled  up  for  carriage. 

6  Open  or  close  pale  and  rail  fence. 

7  Ditto,  with  triangular  rails. 

8  Lattice  and  rail  fence. 

9  Post  and  three-rail  fence  for  cattle. 

10  Five-wire  fence  with  wood  posts.    Varieties  of  this  fence  have 

from  three  to  seven  wires,  the  lower  wires  thicker  than  the 
upper;  also  iron  standards  as  Nos.  19,  20. 

11  Three-rail   split-rail   fence.     The   rail   ends   have  bevelled 

ends  to  lap  in  the  post  mortises. 

12  Two-rail  fence  with  lattice  upright  or  diagonal  panels. 

13  Rustic  fence  formed  of  tree  branches. 

14  Galvanized  corrugated  sheet-iron  fence 


FENCING. 


193 


194     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

15  Three-tube  fence  with  cast  (or  other)  posts.     The  tubes  are 

usually    ordinary    gas-pipes,    galvanized    and   joined    by    the 
ordinary  unions. 

16  L  iron  rail  fence,  with  T  iron  (or  wood)  posts. 

17  Tube  fence  with  wood  posts. 

18  Garden  fence  of  stout  wire,  with  L  or  T  iron  posts. 

19  Post  and  strut  with  footplates  for  the  ground. 

20  T  or  L  iron  posts  and  struts  and  mode  of  fixing  to  a  bridge 

girder. 

21-2     Panelled  brick  boundary  wall. 

23-9     Various  forms  of  stone  copings  for  masonry  or    brick 
boundary  walls. 

80     Stone  open  parapet  with  turned  balusters. 
31     Rolling  gates  for  bridge  or  level  crossing. 

Fencing  posts  are  also  made  of  reinforced  concrete  or  vitrified 
clay  or  shale,  also  many  sections  of  steel  or  iron  bars  and 

tubes. 

Holes  for  fencing  posts  are  sometimes  blasted  by  small 
sticks  of  dynamite  (40%Tsunk  in  holes  jumped  in  the  ground, 
or  bored  by  a  screw  auger. 


FENCING. 


195 


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196     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


Section  37.— STAGING  AND   FALSE  WORKS. 

(Forms,  etc.,  for  reinforced  concrete  work,  Section  41.) 

1  Centering  for  a  semicircular  arch  with  side  supports. 

2  Ditto,  with  four  supports. 

3  Ditto,  with  side  supports. 

4  Centering  for  an  elliptic  arch  supported  on  corbels. 


5     Braced  centering  for  an  elliptic  arch  with  striking  wedges  at 
the  springing. 


6     Strutted  centering  for  a  flat  arch. 

7,  8     Braced  centerings  for  elliptic  arches. 


9     Centering  for  a  segmental   arch,  supported   on   a  braced 
centre  framing. 


10,  11     Temporary  timber  viaduct. 


STAGING    AND    FALSE    WOEKS. 


197 


198     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


12     Centerings  for  a  high  girder  viaduct  of  long  spans,  with 
masonry  piers. 


13     Centering  for  long-span   girder  viaduct,  with   travelling 
crane  for  constructing  the  girders. 


14,  15  Ordinary  builders'  scaffold  for  house  building ;  formed 
of  poles,  putlogs,  and  planks,  and  reached  by  ladders,  materials 
being  hoisted  by  a  rope  pulley  or  winch. 


16  Continental  builders'  scaffold  of  poles,  planks,  and  put- 
logs, reached  by  incline  stages,  the  materials  being  carried  or 
wheeled  up  the  inclines. 


The  centerings  shown  are  types  of  which  there  have  been 
very  many  varieties  designed  and  used.  Every  country  has 
its  own  designs  of  centerings. 


17     Travelling  stage   for  use  inside  a  railway  station   or   other 
building,  to  clean  or  repair  skylights,  etc. 


18     Floating  barges  and  stage  to  carry  a  cylinder  caisson  into 
position. 


STAGING    AND    FALSE    WORKS. 


199 


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200     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


19     Floats  and   stages   to  carry  a  long  girder  and  deposit  it  in 
position  in  a  tidal  river. 


20  Staging  and  capstan  used  for  screw  piles. 

21  Floats  to  carry  a  caisson  or  cylinder  to  its  site. 


STAGING    AND    FALSE    WORKS. 


201 


19 


202     CIVIL    ENGINEEKING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


Section  38.— HOISTING   MACHINERY. 

1  Is  a  common  type  of   wharf    crane,  but   with   the   post, 

revolving  in  a  footstep  and  base  plate  ;  this  gives  a  better  base 
than  where  the  post  is  fixed  in  a  base  plate. 

2  Has  no  post,  but  a  revolving  frame  and  base  plate  with  front 

and  back  friction  rollers  and  a  centre  pin. 

3  Post    and   jib    in  one    piece,  usually  of  wrought  iron.     A 

balance  weight  is  fixed  at  A  to  balance  the  overhanging  jib. 

4  Swing    derrick    crane,  generally   of   wood.     The   jib   turns 

three- fourths  of  a  circle,  and  the  two  guys  are  fixed  at  an 
angle  of  90°  apart,  and  well  secured  by  anchoring  or  loading ; 
often  made  with  very  long  jib  for  builders'  work,  and  mounted 
on  three  tall  framed  stages  to  enable  the  crane  to  reach  every 
part  of  a  building. 

5  Wharf  crane,  with  centre  tension  bolt  instead  of  crane  post. 

In  this  arrangement  there  is  a  vertical  tension  on  the  centre 
bolt  and  thrust  on  the  foot  of  jib. 

6  Warehouse  wall  crane. 

7  Warehouse  wall  crane,  with  high  jib-head. 

8  Whip  crane,  chiefly  used  in  goods  sheds.     The  barrel  is  some- 

times worked  by  an  endless  handrope  as  shown,  and  sometimes 
by  a  second  rope  and  drum  with  a  hand  crank. 

9  Portable    hand  crane,  with   balance   weight.     The   balance 

weight  can  be  shifted  in  or  out  to  balance  the  load. 

10  Foundry  crane,  sometimes  with  travelling  carriage  on  the  jib, 

as  No.  11. 

11  Swing  bracket  crane    and  traveller,   usually  formed,  of  flat 

bars  on  edge  ;  used  only  for  light  loads,  for  smiths'  shops,  etc. 

12  Wharf  derrick,  to   turn   an   entire   circle,  similar  to  No.  4, 

but  employed  for  heavy  loads. 

13  Floating  derrick. 

14  Light  balance  crane. 


HOISTING    MACHINERY. 


203 


204     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


15  Trussed  jib  crane,  with  centre  tension  bolt. 

16  Simple  derrick  and  winch,  with   two  or  three  guy  ropes ; 

for  temporary  purposes  only,  and  may  be  easily  shifted  about. 

17  Sheers  and  winch. 

18  Tripod  and  winch. 

19  Sheers  with  screw  adjustment   to  back  leg.      This  design 

is  adopted  for  very  heavy  lifts,  such  as  loading  heavy 
machinery,  shipping-masts,  boilers,  etc. 

20  Four-guy    derrick    and    winch,    used   for   fixing   columns, 

bases,  masonry,  etc. 

21  Fixed  post  steam  crane,  for  wharfs,  piers,  jetties,  harbour 

works,  etc. 

22  Portable   steam  crane,  very  largely  used  on  wharfs,  piers, 

etc.,  and  sometimes  fitted  with  travelling  gear  in  addition  to 
hoisting  and  slewing  motions. 

23  Wharf  crane,  with  fixed  engine,  centre  bolt,  and  trussed  arched 

jib.  This  is  a  very  good  type,  as  the  ground  is  kept  clear  for 
goods,  etc.,  and  of  course  all  motions,  hoisting,  lowering,  and 
slewing  are  controlled  from  the  crane  above  ground  by  hand 
levers. 

24  Hydraulic  wharf  crane,  with  fixed  post.     The  common  type 

universally  used  in  docks,  etc.,  with  the  ordinary  form  of 
multiplying  hydraulic  cylinder  and  chain  gear :  the  valve  for 
controlling  its  movements  is  operated  by  hand  levers  ex- 
tending up  through  slots  in  the  floor ;  the  slewing  is  performed 
by  a  separate  cylinder  and  chain  gear,  with  a  distinct  con- 
trolling lever. 


HOISTING    MACHINEEY. 


205 


206     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

25  Hydraulic  short  lift  ram,  centre  crane,   and  traveller, 

employed  chiefly  to  raise  the  ingots  out  of  the  casting  pits  of 
Bessemer  steel  works.  The  ram  is  of  course  subject  to  severe 
cross  strains,  and  many  designs  provide  an  overhead  guide  or 
support  for  the  ramhead. 

26  Automatic  balance  crane,  portable  or  fixed  ;  the  position  of 

the  fulcrum  varies  with  the  load. 

27  Steam    multiplying   cylinder  crane,  in  which  the  ram  is 

forced  out  by  steam  pressure,  acting  either  directly  or  by  an 
intervening  body  of  water. 

28  Breakwater  swing  crane. 

29  Overhanging  travelling  crane,  for  use  on  breakwaters,  etc. 

30  Overhead  hydraulic  travelling  goliath,  to  span  a  railway  ; 

has  slewing  motion  and  a  balanced  jib. 

31  Single  rail  crane  with  top  guide  rail.     . 

32  Overhead  traveller  on  gantry. 

33  Goliath. 

34  Steam    overhead    crane,    with  carriage  to  span  a  railway. 

Largely  used  on  dock  wharves,  etc.,  as  they  have  a  high  lift 
and  do  not  encumber  or  encroach  on  valuable  quay  space. 

35  Hydraulic  cylinder  post  crane  ;  sometimes  adopted  instead 

of  the  type  No.  24. 


HOISTING    MACHINERY. 


207 


208     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

36  Heavy  hydraulic  crane,  with  suspended  cylinder  ;  employed 

for  work  of  the  very  heaviest  type. 

) 

37  Ship's  davit. 

38  Balanced  jib  post  crane,  no  tie-rod.      The  weight  must  be 

sufficiently  heavy  to  balance  the  jib  and  load. 

39  Hydraulic  strut  jib  crane.     The  load  is  raised  by  raising 

the  jib. 

40  Overside  dock  crane,  for  discharging  from  ships  into  barges. 

The   overhang    being   very  great   in  this  design,   it  must  be 
provided  with  a  heavy  frame  or  balance  weight. 

41  Wagon  tip  crane,  for  loading  vessels. 

42  Double  sheave  4  to  1  purchase  for  crane  jib. 

43  Crane  with  rising  jib. 

44  Suspended  travelling  hand  crane. 

45  Basement  crane,  projected  diagonally  upward  when  in  use. 

The  winch  is  a  fixed  one. 

46  Loophole    crane,    projected    horizontally    when    in    use   by 

a  hand-rope  "gear  working"  a  pinion  and  rack,  or  by  a  chain 
wound  upon  a  barrel. 

47  Travelling  wharf  crane  to  span  a  railway. 


HOISTING    MACHINERY. 


209 


36 


210     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


48     Wharf  goliath,  with  swinging  beam  and  traveller. 


49     Gantry  crane  or  transporter  to  unload   from  a  vessel  and 
deliver  into  trucks. 


50  Roof  traveller  crane. 

51  Wharf   crane  with  elevated  inner  rail. 

52  Transporter. 

53  Gantry  crane. 

54  Long  jib  wharf  crane  to  reach  over  two  or  three  vessels. 


HOISTING    MACHINERY. 


211 


212     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


56     Travelling  crane  or  goliath    running  on  rails    laid  on  the 
ground. 


57     Overhead   type   travelling    crane,   running    on    overhead 
girders,  with  staging  and  derrick  for  fixing  roof  principals. 


58     Jetty  or   pier   pile-driving   travelling   stage    and    steam 
hoisting  engine. 


59     Jetty  or  wharf  end  crane. 


60     Travelling   hydraulic   wagon,   hoisting,    tipping,    and    dis- 
charging stage. 


61  Revolving  cantilever  crane. 

62  Wharf  crane  with  jointed  jib  for  quick  discharging. 


63     Travelling  transporter  for  unloading  coal,  etc.,  and  depositing 
it  in  heaps. 


Builders'  steam  derrick  cranes,  as  No.  4,  for  high  and 
extensive  buildings  are  mounted  on  a  triangular  platform 
raised  above  the  building  on  three  framed  timber  piers  on 
towers  braced  together  and  fixed  inside  the  building. 


HOISTING    MACHINERY. 


213 


214     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section  39.-SUBMARINE    ENGINEERING. 

(See  also  Sections  29,  30,  32,  39.) 

1  Canal  dredger,  with  one,  two,  or  three  sets  of  chain  buckets. 
The  material  is  usually  fed  into  a  side  trough  or  conveyor 
and  dumped  on  the  canal  bank,  or  shot  into  drop-bottom  barges 
and  deposited  in  deep  water.  (See  Section  24  and  Nos.  6,  7.) 


2  Bottom  dredger  for  deepening  a  harbour  or  river  or  removing 
shoals.  The  material  is  shot  into  barges  with  drop  bottoms 
and  sunk  in  deep  water. 


3  Water  or  compressed  air  injector  jet  suction.  Dredger 
for  sand  or  mud  bottom.  Has  a  pipe  line  to  convey  the 
material  to  the  shore. 


4,  5  Submarine  tube  tunnel  and  mode  of  laying  on  prepared 
or  pile  foundation  and  afterwards  covered  with  concrete  in  mass 
in  form  of  a  bank. 


6     Canal  dredger,  discharging  on  to  a  bank  tip. 


7     Canal  bank  chain  bucket  dredger,  travelling  on  a  railway 
laid  on  the  canal  bank. 


8  Dolphin,  a  group  of  piles  braced  together  used  as  a  protection 

to  a  pier. 

9  Ground  chain  moorings  and  screws  for  harbour  buoys. 


SUBMARINE    ENGINEERING. 


215 


216     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


Section  40.— OPENING    BRIDGES. 


1     Balanced  lifting  bridge  for  short  spans. 


2     Rolling  and  lifting  bridge,  with   balance   weight  for   short 
spans. 


;->-4     Single   swing   bridge,  supported   on    a   strut   frame  fitted 
with  rollers  running  on  a  curved  rail  on  the  bottom. 


5     Double  balanced  lifting  bridge,  with  overhead  fixed  bridge 
to  be  used  when  the  lower  bridge  is  open  to  the  river. 


6  Swing  bridge  on  a  turntable,  carried  by  an  air  float. 

7  Lifting  bridge,  with  winch  gear,  usually  balanced. 


8  Double  swing  bridge  on  a  central  pier,  giving  two  openings. 
When  open  it  is  protected  from  drifting  vessels  by  dolphins  or 
pile  tenders. 


OPENING     BRIDGES. 


217 


218     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


9     Transporter  bridge. 

10  Single  swing  bridge  on  a  turntable. 

11  Double  swing  bridge  on  central  caisson  pier. 


12  Telescopic  bridge  at  Queen's  Ferry,  Chester.  The  central 
opening  span  is  balanced  by  weights  and  runs  back  on  rollers 
under  the  floor  of  fixed  side  span.  The  central  floor  is  hinged 
to  swing  arms  and  falls  far  enough  to  pass  under  the  floor  of 
the  fixed  span. 


18     Rolling  bridge  with  lateral  approach. 
14     Balanced  lifting  bridge. 


15     Double-leaf     lifting     bridge.       The     lifting     beams     have 
balance  weights  on  their  inner  ends. 


OPENING     BRIDGES. 


219 


220     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES 


Section  41.— ROOFS. 

TIMBER    ROOFS.   - 

1     Simple  triangular  truss  with  king  rod  (or  post). 

2-3     Queen  post  trusses. 

4-5     Church  roof  trusses. 

6     Gothic  arch  truss. 

7-8     Church  roof  trusses. 

9~10     Arched  roof  trusses,  framed  and  braced. 
11     Framed  truss  with  arched  laminated  tie. 
12,  13     Laminated  arch  truss. 


ROOFS. 


221 


222     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

14,  15     Simple  triangular  trusses. 

16  High-pitch  roof  truss. 

17  Arched  and  framed  truss  with  horizontal  tie. 

18  Mansard  truss. 

19  Truss  with  arched  tie,  ornamented. 

20  Framed  truss  with  Gothic  openwork  spandrils. 


STEEL    ROOFS. 

21  Arched  T  iron  principal  with  horizontal  rod  tie. 

22  Simple  triangular  truss. 

23  Triangular  truss  with  one  bracing. 

24  Ditto  with  eight  panels. 

25  Arched  or  bowstring  truss  with  eight  panels. 

26  Ditto  with  cambered  tie-rod. 

27  Triangular  truss  with  cambered  tie-rod. 


ROOFS. 


2528 


14- 


224     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

28  Triangular  truss,  another  form. 

29,  30     Ditto  with  compound  truss  bracing. 

51  Arched  corrugated  sheet-iron  roof,  simple  type. 

32  Compound  triangular  truss. 

33  Six  panel  triangular  truss. 

34  Triangular  roof  in  three  bays  with  four  supports. 

35  Braced  segmental  arch  truss. 

36  Three  hinge  braced  Gothic  arch  truss. 

37  Semicircular  braced  arch  truss. 

38  Ditto. 

39  Triangular  truss  with  counter-braced  principals. 

40  Ditto  with  central  headway. 


ROOFS 


225 


31 


226     CIVIL    ENGINEEEING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


41  Mansard  type  triangular  truss. 

42-3     Station  roof  with  elliptic  tie  and  ventilator. 

44  Three-hinge  roof. 

45  Double  cantilever  roof  on  single  column. 

46  High-pitched  roof  with  arched  ties. 

47  Compound  truss  Mansard  type. 

48  Ditto. 


49     Three-hinge   compound   truss  with   outside   cantilevers  as 
a  station  roof. 


50     Station  roof  with  outside  cantilevers. 


51-2     Cantilever  roofs  supported  from  a  wall. 


ROOFS. 


227 


228     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


58     Station  roof  with  outside  cantilevers. 


54     Ditto  with  overhanging  eaves. 


55     Roof  formed  of  four  triangular  bays  carried  on  parallel  braced 
main  girders. 


56  Triangular  roof  with  cantilever  eaves. 

57  Three-bay  station  roof  on  two  columns. 


58     Station    roof    over   two  platforms  carried   on   rolled   girders 
reaching  the  entire  width. 


59     Double  platform  station  roof  with  central  gutter  supported 
on  double  columns. 


60     Station  roof  of  central  arched  bay  and  two  cantilevers. 


61     Factory  or  shed  roof  in  several  bays.      The  steep  slopes  are 
of  glass  and  face  the  north  to  avoid  sun -glare. 


62-3     Roof  formed  of  one  or  more  short  spans  placed  transversely 
and  carried  on  arched  girders. 


64-5     Sections  of  ventilators  with  louvres. 


EOOFS. 


229 


230     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


66     Arched  roof  on  rolled  girder  principals. 


67     Roof  of  two   or  more  bays  carried  on  longitudinal  braced 
or  plate  girders. 


68  Arched  station  roof  covered  only  over  the  platforms. 

69  Cast-iron  three-bay  platform  roof  on  two  columns. 

70  Platform  roof  of  wood  on  two  columns  with  central  gutter. 

71  Triangular  platform  roof  on  double  columns. 

72  Ditto  on  single  column  and  wall. 

73-9     Platform  roofs  supported  from  walls. 


80     Theatre  front  pavement  roof,  usually  of  glass  and  highly 
ornamental. 


ROOFS. 


231 


232     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


81-3     Cantilever  platform  roofs,   steel  framed. 


84-5  Typical  details  of  a  triangular  truss  framing  and  wall  or 
column  supports  ;  85  is  an  elevation  of  a  trussed  purlin.  (See 
also  Sections  6  and  10.) 


86  Junction  of  principal  and  tie  bar. 

87  Junction  of  tie  bar  and  diagonals. 

88  Junction  of  principal,  tie  bar,  and  steel  column. 

89  Section  of  iron  and  wood  roof  and  gutter  at  support. 


ROOFS. 


234     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section  42.        CONCRETE    AND    REINFORCED 
CONCRETE. 

1,2  Section  and  elevation  of  square  concrete  pile  re- 
inforced with  four  steel  rods  and  horizontal  ring  ties. 

3,  4     Circular  pile  similarly  reinforced. 

5,  6     Forms  for  circular  and  square  piles. 

7-10  Iron  rammers  for  "Compressol"  piles.  With  No.  7 
a  hole  is  made  in  the  ground  by  repeated  rammings,  com- 
pressing 'the  soil  around  the  hole.  Stones  are  then  dropped 
in  and  rammed  into  the  foot  of  the  hole  and  the  hole 
filled  with  concrete. 

11  Form  (hinged  together)  for  a  square  pile  or  column. 

12  Wall  forms    with    various    forms    of    ties.     There    are    many 

kinds  of  ties  of  special  make  in  use. 

13  Ditto  showing  insertion  of  wood  bricks  or  fillets. 

14  Plan  of  angle  or  quoin  forms. 

15,  16     Foundation  bed    of  concrete  for  a  building  on  concrete 
piles. 

17     Form  for  a  square  column. 

18-20     The  "  Kahn  "  trussed  reinforcement  bar  for  a  main 
girder. 

21-2     Grooved     bar     to    take   splayed   truss   rods   fixed    in    the 
grooves. 

23  Triangular  wire  mesh  reinforcement. 

24  Corrugated  bar  for  ditto. 


CONCRETE    AND   REINFORCED   CONCRETE.          235 


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17 


236     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


25-7     Type  of  forms  for  a  floor,  with  joists  and  girders,  sup- 
ported on  columns  ;  all  in  reinforced  concrete. 


28-30     Sections  of  reinforced  concrete  floors  and  joisting. 


31-4     Floor  girder ;  square  section  showing  various  styles   of 
reinforcement. 


35     Reinforced  concrete  casing  to  the  piles  of  a  pier,  subject  to 
abrasion  by  sea  beach. 


36     Concrete  arch  bridge,  reinforced,  with  suspended  temporary 
staging  or  forms. 


37     Another  form  of  reinforced  concrete  arch  bridge. 


38-9     Reinforced  concrete  arch  and  spandril  bridge.     The  arch 
is  in  three  ribs. 


40-4     Various  types  of  notched  and  corrugated  or  twisted  rein- 
forcement rods. 


45     Reinforced    concrete   column  top    with  girder  joists  and 
floor. 


CONCRETE   AND   REINFORCED   CONCRETE.          287 


238     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


46     Reinforced    concrete    roof    arch   and  side  walls,  in  which 
the  thrust  is  taken  by  anchored  tie  bars. 


47-8     Concrete  slab  partitions. 

49,  50     Reinforced  retaining  wall  with  toe  and  back  buttresses. 

51     Another  form  of  reinforced  concrete  retaining  wall. 


52     Reinforced   concrete   battered   retaining  wall  with  long 
toe  and  projecting  heel. 


53-4     Reinforced    concrete    hollow    darn  or  weir  with  trans- 
verse partitions  and  openings. 


Prevention  of  freezing  of  concrete  by  additions  of  solutions 
of  calcium  chloride  or  common  salt ;  said  to  improve  the 
concrete  by  rendering  it  more  impermeable. 


Expanded    steel    is    also  extensively  used  for   reinforcement 
of  concrete  in  floors,  roofs,  partitions,  walls,  etc. 


Concrete    hollow    building    blocks    of   various  shapes  are 
used  instead  of  stone  or  brick  for  walls  and  partitions. 


CONCRETE    AND   REINFORCED   CONCRETE.          239 


49 


4-7 


48 


240     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 

Section  43.— DAMS  AND   WEIRS. 

(See  also  Sections  29,  30.) 

1  "  Gerard  "  shutter  dam,  operated  by  a  hydraulic  ram. 

2  Fish  pass. 

3  "  Stoney  "  sluices  and  darn  with  balanced  rising  sluice  gates. 
I     Balanced  sliding  dam  or  sluices. 

4>,  G     Arched  gravity  dam  in  masonry  or  concrete. 

7     Drum  weir,  balanced  by  the  water  pressure. 

<S     Earthen  dam  with  puddle  wall.     (See  Sections  44,  24,  and  29.) 

9     Ditto  with  puddle  face  and  pitched  slope. 
10-12     Timber  gravity  dams. 
13,  14     Pitched  stone  dam  and  sluices. 

15  Irrigation  weir  with  adjustable  sluices  and  over-bridges. 

16  Rubble  stone  dam. 


DAMS  AND   WEIRS. 


241 


242     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 


17  Standard  type  of  concrete  or  masonry  dam. 

18  Vertical  wall  dam,  usually  arched  in  plan  as  No.  22. 

19  Concrete  spillway. 

20  Earthen  spillway  with  puddle  wall  and  pitched  slopes. 
21-2     Plans  of  dams,  straight  and  arched. 

23  Masonry  dam  with  rubble  core  or  hearting. 

24  Series  of  dams  to  divide  a  stream  into  pools. 


Many  rivers   have   been  "  canalized "  by  the   construction  of 
dams  and  locks  with  spillways  or  weirs  for  the  overflow. 


Some  large  rivers,  such  as  the  Charles,  at  Boston,  have 
been  dockized  by  the  construction  of  a  dam  with  locks  for 
shipping. 


DAMS  AND   WEIES. 


243 


24- 


244     CIVIL    ENGINEERING    TYPES    AND    DEVICES. 
Section  44.— WATER   SUPPLY. 

1  Reservoir  wall  of  concrete  with  earth  filling. 

2  Ditto  with  puddle  wall  and  foundation. 

3  Reservoir   wall    faced   with   pitched   stonework   with  puddle 

wall  and  earth  bank. 

4  Filter    bed    lined    with    concrete   and   with   puddle  wall  and 

foundation.     The  bed  is  formed  of  loose  bricks  covered  with 
layers  of  sand  and  gravel. 

5  Elevated  tank  for  water  supply. 

6  Stand  pipe  to  give  an  hydraulic  head  to  the  supply  pipes. 
7,  8     Sections  of  covered  reservoirs. 

9     Syphon  supply  main  from  a  reservoir. 

10  Reservoir  water   tower   and  culvert,  containing  the  service 

main,  inlets,  and  valves,  reached  from  the  reservoir  bank  by 
a  bridge. 

11  Hydraulic  high-pressure  accumulator  weighted  with  cast- 

iron    sections.      These    are   sometimes  substituted  by  a  steel 
cylindrical  case,  loaded  with  ballast,  etc. 

Hydraulic  high-pressure  water  for  lifts,  etc.,  is  supplied 
in  special  high-pressure  mains  in  London,  etc.,  at  pressure  of 
700  Ib.  per  square  inch. 

For  details  of  pipes,  valves,  pumps,  pumping-engines,  and  other 
plant  see  the  Engineer's  Sketch-book. 


WATER    SUPPLY. 


245 


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